Supervivencia, crecimiento y dimorfismo sexual del cangrejo terrestre Cardisoma guanhumi en condiciones semicontroladas de cautiverio
Karla Verónica Santana-Aguayo, Carlos Iván Pérez-Rostro *, Martha Patricia Hernández-Vergara
Instituto Tecnológico de Boca del Río, División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Laboratorio de Mejoramiento Genético y Producción Acuícola, Km. 12 Carretera Veracruz–Córdoba, 94290 Boca del Río, Veracruz, Mexico
Received: 21 April 2025; accepted: 23 February 2026
Abstract
This study evaluated the survival, growth, and reproductive performance of Cardisoma guanhumi maintained for 12 months under semi-controlled conditions. A total of 341 adult crabs were collected from mangrove habitats and housed in a naturalized enclosure equipped with buried PVC shelters, freshwater and saltwater basins, and automated sprinklers to maintain humidity. Crabs were fed a plant-based diet supplemented with tilapia muscle and monitored monthly. Final survival reached 76%, and 68.6% of females became ovigerous, supporting the species’ reproductive viability under captive conditions. Morphometric growth was recorded in 170 intact individuals. Notably, carapace width increased by approximately 1 mm/month despite the near absence of visible molting, particularly among smaller crabs (< 100 g), which gained over 150% in total weight. Seasonal patterns were detected, with greater somatic gains in warmer months. No significant differences were observed between sexes overall, although some interactions were noted in specific morphometric traits. These findings suggest the potential occurrence of hypertrophic tissue expansion or mineral recycling in the absence of ecdysis, which merits further investigation. This study provides the first long-term physiological baseline for C. guanhumi under ex-situ conditions and supports its potential use in conservation and aquaculture programs.
Este estudio evaluó la supervivencia, el crecimiento y el desempeño reproductivo de Cardisoma guanhumi durante 12 meses en condiciones semicontroladas. Se recolectaron 341 cangrejos adultos en manglares y se mantuvieron en un recinto naturalizado con refugios de PVC enterrados, estanques de agua dulce y salada, y rociadores automatizados para mantener la humedad. Los organismos fueron alimentados con una dieta vegetal suplementada con músculo de tilapia y monitoreados mensualmente. La supervivencia final fue de 76 y 68.6% de las hembras se volvieron ovígeras, evidenciando viabilidad reproductiva en cautiverio. Se registró crecimiento morfométrico en 170 individuos con apéndices intactos; el ancho del caparazón aumentó aproximadamente 1 mm por mes, pese a la casi ausencia de mudas visibles. Los organismos más pequeños (< 100 g) incrementaron su peso en más de 150%. Se observaron patrones estacionales, con mayores ganancias somáticas en meses cálidos. No se detectaron diferencias significativas entre sexos, salvo algunas interacciones en rasgos específicos. Los resultados sugieren posibles mecanismos de expansión tisular o reciclaje mineral sin muda. Este estudio aporta una línea base fisiológica a largo plazo y respalda el potencial de la especie para conservación y acuicultura.
Coastal ecosystems provide critical services for biodiversity, food production, and human livelihoods. However, increasing anthropogenic pressures —including urban expansion, agriculture, and coastal infrastructure— have led to widespread loss and degradation of mangroves and wetlands (Alvarez & Briquets, 1983). This environmental decline directly threatens terrestrial crab species of the family Gecarcinidae, including Cardisoma guanhumi, a large land crab distributed from Florida to Brazil (Anger, 2013; Botelho et al., 2001).
Cardisoma guanhumi plays a key ecological role in mangrove ecosystems as a detritivore and sediment bioturbator. Its burrowing behavior enhances sediment oxygenation and stimulates microbial decomposition, contributing to nutrient cycling and substrate balance (Kristensen, 2008). Economically, it is highly valued in several Caribbean countries for its large chelipeds and meat content (Watson-Zink, 2021). In Mexico, although C. guanhumi is not currently listed under NOM-059 as endangered (Semarnat, 2020), its inclusion in local management programs reflects growing concern over population decline, and has been subject to seasonal fishing bans in regions such as Veracruz (Semarnat, 2020). Despite its ecological and commercial relevance, scientific knowledge on C. guanhumi is still limited, especially under captive conditions. Most available studies on C. guanhumi are over 2 decades old and focus primarily on natural history and reproductive cycles, with very limited data on captive performance or aquaculture potential (Diele et al., 2005; Smith & Smith, 2001).
Given the ongoing degradation of coastal habitats and the absence of recent biological data, understanding the growth and reproductive performance of C. guanhumi in captivity is essential. This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of maintaining this species under semi-controlled conditions, describing seasonal growth patterns and reproductive output. The findings provide foundational data for conservation strategies and offer the first long-term evidence of physiological plasticity in captivity, supporting future aquaculture development for this native land crab. Such species are vital for coastal productivity and food web integrity (Gifford, 1963).
Materials and methods
The experiment was conducted at the Aquaculture Genetics and Production Laboratory of the Instituto Tecnológico de Boca del Río (ITBOCA), Veracruz, Mexico. A total of 341 adult specimens of C. guanhumi (132 males and 209 females; cephalothorax width > 50 mm) were manually collected during July and August 2022 from mangrove habitats along the Boca del Río-Antón Lizardo-Alvarado corridor (19°03’08” N, 96°00’27” W). Collection was performed under environmental authorization in compliance with national regulations and with minimal handling stress. Ovigerous females were excluded to avoid interference with growth and reproductive monitoring. Crabs were weighed (165.11 ± 50.19 g) and measured (CW: 6.80 ± 0.81 cm; CL: 5.06 ± 0.79 cm) before transport in 60-L plastic containers (15 individuals per container) to the laboratory facilities.
Crabs were maintained for 12 months in a semi-controlled, custom-built habitat designed to simulate key structural and microclimatic features of their natural environment. The enclosure measured 7 × 6 m, delimited by concrete perimeter walls 1.2 m high, and was installed directly over natural soil. A 30-cm-deep layer of fine sand was distributed across the entire area to allow natural burrowing behavior.
Eighty cylindrical PVC shelters, ranging from 2.5” to 6” in diameter, were buried diagonally into the substrate. Each tube was partially exposed at one end and fully embedded at the other, mimicking natural burrow structures and providing refuge. These shelters were distributed evenly across the enclosure. A young red mangrove (Rhizophora sp.) tree was planted at the center of the habitat to provide shading and promote environmental heterogeneity.
Two shallow basins were integrated at ground level to simulate aquatic access points: one freshwater basin (0.80 × 0.40 m) and one saltwater basin (0.60 × 0.50 m). These allowed the crabs to access both water types to mimic the species’ natural osmoregulatory behavior. The enclosure was protected with plastic mesh netting to prevent escapes and exclude predators.
A sprinkler system powered by a ½ HP submersible pump was installed to automatically maintain ambient humidity at 70 ± 10% and simulate rainfall events. This system operated intermittently throughout the day, creating a microclimatic regime resembling that of natural coastal mangroves. Environmental parameters including temperature and salinity were monitored daily using a YSI 556 multiparameter probe. Crabs were stocked at low density (< 1.0 ind/m²) to minimize territorial stress and promote natural behavior. A 5-day acclimation period was provided before experimental measurements commenced. The layout of the semi-controlled habitat and individual crab marking strategy are illustrated (Fig. 1).
Crabs were fed ad libitum with a rotating mixture of fruits and vegetables, supplied daily. Each individual received approximately 30-40 g/day of plant matter, including chopped papaya (10 g), mango (8 g), banana (5 g), coconut (3 g), watermelon (5 g), pumpkin (5 g), radish (2 g), and carrot (2 g), provided in alternating combinations to ensure dietary variety and stimulate natural foraging behavior.
In addition, each crab was offered 5 g of fresh tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) muscle every 2 days as a source of animal protein. All food items were weighed prior to distribution using a digital scale, and uneaten remnants were removed within 24 hours to prevent microbial proliferation and maintain substrate hygiene. Feeding was performed in the early morning to take advantage of natural crab activity rhythms. Food was distributed uniformly across the enclosure to reduce competition and ensure equal access among individuals.
A total of 170 crabs that retained all appendages throughout the experiment were selected for monthly morphometric monitoring. Each individual was permanently identified by engraving a unique mark on the dorsal carapace using a Dremel® rotary tool, a method shown to be effective and non-lethal for individual identification in crustaceans, followed by a dot of red nail polish to facilitate visual recognition during handling.
Nine morphometric parameters were recorded: total weight (TW), cephalothorax width (CW), cephalothorax length (CL), and bilateral measurements of the chelipeds, including: chelae (RCh, LCh), carpi (RCa, LCa), and meri (RM, LM). All linear dimensions were measured to the nearest 0.01 cm using a digital caliper (Autotec™), and weight was recorded to the nearest 2 g using an Ohaus Scout Pro SPU2001 electronic scale. Measurements were conducted at 30-day intervals for a total of 12 months. Handling was performed with care to minimize stress and avoid damage to limbs or exoskeleton. Data were logged immediately into individual digital records for subsequent statistical analysis. All measurements were performed by a single trained observer to reduce operator error.
Survival was assessed as the proportion of live individuals at the end of the 12-month experimental period relative to the initial number of crabs introduced into the habitat (n = 341). Daily inspections were conducted to detect mortalities, which were immediately removed to prevent deterioration and potential contamination of the enclosure. Causes of mortality were not determined but monitored for frequency to identify potential trends.
Reproductive activity was evaluated based on the presence of ovigerous females. Identification was performed by visual inspection of the ventral abdomen to detect external egg masses attached to the pleopods. Females were not handled unnecessarily to avoid detachment or disturbance of egg clutches. The number of ovigerous females was recorded seasonally, and reproductive peaks were determined based on their frequency during each sampling period. Although no copulation events were directly observed, the appearance of ovigerous females was interpreted as evidence of successful mating or possible sperm storage, as reported in other decapods. No interventions (e.g., hormone induction) were performed to stimulate reproduction.
Statistical analysis
Only crabs that retained all appendages throughout the entire experimental period (n = 170) were included in the statistical analyses. Data were first tested for normality using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Lilliefors tests, and for homogeneity of variances using Levene’s test. Sex-related differences across all morphometric variables were analyzed using one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). To evaluate the effects of season and sex on specific traits, a two-way ANOVA was conducted for each morphometric variable independently. When significant differences were detected, Tukey’s HSD post hoc test was applied to identify specific group differences. Additionally, to assess growth performance by initial body size, crabs were grouped into 4 weight classes (0-99 g, 100-199 g, 200-299 g, > 300 g), and a two-way ANOVA (sex × weight class) was performed. Statistical analyses were performed using Statistica version 7.0 (StatSoft Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA), and differences were considered statistically significant at p < 0.05. Statistical procedures followed standard biometric methodology (Sokal & Rohlf, 2003).
Results
Cardisoma guanhumi was successfully maintained for 12 consecutive months in the semi-controlled habitat, showing a final survival rate of 76.25%. Males exhibited slightly higher survival than females. These values are comparable to those reported in similar experimental setups for other land or semi-terrestrial brachyurans, such as Gecarcinus lateralis and Ucides cordatus, where survival ranged between 70-85% under laboratory or mesocosm conditions (Greenaway, 2003; Hartnoll, 1982). However, published data on long-term captive maintenance of C. guanhumi remain scarce, with most available studies limited to short observational trials or reproductive monitoring under field conditions (Gifford, 1963; Shinozaki-Mendes et al., 2013). Sex-specific survival percentages are presented in Table 1.
Ovigerous females were recorded in all seasons, with the highest occurrence observed during summer and early autumn. A total of 68.6% of the females became ovigerous at least once throughout the year, consistent with historical accounts of reproductive periodicity in this species. Although no copulation events were directly observed during the trial, the consistent appearance of externally egg-bearing females suggests that successful mating occurred prior to or during the initial weeks of captivity. This observation supports the hypothesis of sperm storage capacity in C. guanhumi, a reproductive trait widely documented in decapod crustaceans and associated with multiple spawning events and temporal reproductive flexibility (Bauer, 1986; Taissoun, 1974).
On average, C. guanhumi exhibited a monthly morphometric gain of approximately 1 mm in cephalothorax width under captive conditions, despite the absence of molting in all but one individual. All morphometric variables showed significant seasonal increases over the 12-month period. The most pronounced gains occurred in cephalothorax width (CW) and total weight (TW), with maximum values recorded during spring and summer. These seasonal trends are illustrated in Figure 2. Two-way ANOVA indicated a significant effect of weight class on TW gain (p < 0.001), but no effect of sex (p > 0.05) nor sex × weight class interaction. Crabs in the lowest weight class (0-99 g) showed the highest relative TW gain (> 150%), whereas those above 300 g gained less than 3% (Fig. 2). Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) did not detect overall differences between sexes across the 9 morphometric variables. However, a significant interaction was found for cephalothorax length (CL) between sex and season (p = 0.02).
Discussion
The relatively high survival rate can be attributed to the design of the artificial habitat, which included multiple buried shelters, regulated humidity through simulated rainfall, access to both freshwater and saltwater, and low stocking density. These conditions have been recognized as critical factors for terrestrial crab survival under controlled environments (Herreid, 1963; Oliveira et al., 2020), likely contributing to reduced stress, enhanced shelter availability, and overall behavioral stability.
Importantly, no signs of cannibalism or excessive agonistic behavior were observed during the experimental period. This contrasts with other decapods in captivity where confinement and competition for space often lead to significant mortality, as reported by Bauer (1986) and Fox (1975). The lack of mortality peaks during the reproductive season also suggests that the species can tolerate environmental manipulation and semi-controlled conditions without major physiological stress.
To our knowledge, this is one of the first experimental reports documenting long-term survival of C. guanhumi under captive conditions with ecological elements resembling natural mangrove habitats. Previous studies on this species have primarily been limited to short-term reproductive monitoring or natural history observations (Hartnoll, 1982; Smith & Smith, 2001).
The reproductive performance observed under semi-controlled conditions confirms that C. guanhumi is capable of adapting its reproductive cycle to artificial environments with minimal intervention. The presence of mangrove vegetation, natural soil substrate, and controlled humidity may have played a key role in maintaining environmental cues necessary for ovarian development and spawning behavior, as shown in studies on similar species (Mariappan et al., 2000; Silva & Oshiro, 2002). Unlike studies performed under purely laboratory conditions, where reproductive inhibition is common in terrestrial crabs, this setup offered a more ecologically relevant habitat, favoring reproductive success. The relatively high frequency of ovigerous females obtained without hormonal induction or photoperiod manipulation highlights the potential of C. guanhumi for captive broodstock development. Given the limited number of experimental studies on reproductive ecology in this species, these findings contribute novel evidence for its suitability in aquaculture and conservation-based culture systems.
The observed growth pattern in C. guanhumi under captive conditions may reflect a typical crustacean molting mechanism, in which the inner layer of the old exoskeleton is reabsorbed prior to ecdysis and a new cuticle is secreted and later calcified. This process allows size increase while maintaining structural stability of the carapace in adults. The reabsorption of calcium and other minerals, and their temporary storage in gastroliths or the hepatopancreas, has been well documented in decapods (Chang, 1995; Greenaway, 1985; Skinner, 1985), and is particularly relevant in land crabs due to limited environmental calcium availability.
Although somatic growth in decapod crustaceans is typically associated with molting events, the sustained morphometric increases observed in this study, in the apparent absence of clearly detectable ecdysis, may reflect subtle molting events, mineral recycling dynamics, or cuticular remodeling processes not externally observed. Similar mechanisms have been discussed in other decapods under stable environmental conditions (Chang, 1995; Greenaway, 1985; Skinner, 1985).
This physiological flexibility may represent an adaptive response of semi-terrestrial crabs to fluctuating environmental constraints (Anger, 2013; Zimmer et al., 2019). Further studies incorporating histological and endocrine approaches would help clarify the mechanisms underlying the morphometric patterns recorded here (Hartnoll, 2001). Similar sex-based morphometric assessments have been conducted in other brachyurans such as Menippe mercenaria, where cheliped development is linked to territorial behavior and reproductive strategies (Bauer, 1986; Savage & Sullivan, 1978).
Cardisoma guanhumi can be maintained under semi-controlled conditions with high survival and reproductive performance. The sustained morphometric growth recorded during the study provides a baseline for understanding its physiological responses in captivity and supports its potential for ex situ conservation and aquaculture applications.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Andrés Cabrera Muñoz from the Aquaculture Genetics and Production Laboratory (ITBOCA) for his technical assistance throughout the study.
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Modern and fossil pollen assemblages in the Sierra Occidental of Jalisco; ~ 1,500 years of history of the vegetation and environmental change
Ana Patricia del Castillo-Batistaa, *, Blanca Lorena Figueroa-Rangela, Socorro Lozano-Garcíab, Ramón Cuevas-Guzmána, Miguel Olvera-Vargasa y Lia Hueso-Vidrioc
a Universidad de Guadalajara, Laboratorio de Paleoecología y Cambio Climático, Departamento de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Centro Universitario de la Costa Sur, Av. Independencia Nacional Núm. 151, 48900 Autlán de Navarro, Jalisco, México
b Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Geología, Laboratorio de Paleoecología, Paleoclimatología y Cambio Climático, Departamento de Dinámica Terrestre Superficial, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán, 02376 Ciudad de México, México
c Universidad de Guadalajara, Ingeniería en Recursos Naturales y Agropecuarios, Departamento de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Centro Universitario de la Costa Sur, Av. Independencia Nacional Núm. 151, 48900 Autlán de Navarro, Jalisco, México
*Autor para correspondencia: ana.delcastillo@academicos.udg.mx (A.P. del Castillo-Batista)
Recibido: 15 agosto 2025; aceptado: 30 octubre 2025
Resumen
La sierra de Cacoma, Jalisco, es una región de alta diversidad florística y endemismo situada en una zona de transición biogeográfica (2,119 m snm), donde convergen elementos templados y tropicales. Analizamos la relación entre la composición taxonómica del polen moderno y fósil, así como los cambios ambientales en un bosque de Pinus–Quercus–Abies de La Cumbre de Guadalupe (Talpa de Allende, Jalisco, México). Se analizaron 22 muestras de polen moderno, 62 de polen fósil y la estructura de la vegetación en 14 parcelas de 500 m2. Aplicamos los índices de asociación palinológica de Davis, la diversidad de Hill y una similitud basada en la distancia cordal. Los últimos ~ 1,580 años muestran un intervalo de mayor similitud (~ 850 y 400 años cal AP) intercalado por episodios de cambio (~ 1,500, 1,000 y 300 años cal AP), congruentes con transiciones climáticas del Holoceno tardío. En el periodo reciente, incendios y deforestación han favorecido la homogeneización de la vegetación. Estos resultados documentan las respuestas de bosques templados a forzamientos climáticos y antrópicos a escala centenaria y resaltan el valor de integrar lluvia de polen moderno, registros fósiles y métricas de diversidad.
The Sierra de Cacoma, Jalisco is a region of high floristic diversity and endemism located in a biogeographic transition zone (2,119 m asl), where temperate and tropical elements converge. We analyzed the relationship between the taxonomic composition of modern and fossil pollen and environmental changes in a Pinus-Quercus-Abies forest at La Cumbre de Guadalupe (Talpa de Allende, Jalisco, Mexico). We analyzed 22 modern pollen samples, 62 fossil pollen samples, and vegetation structure in 14 plots (500 m² each). We applied Davis palynological association indices, Hill diversity, and a dissimilarity analysis based on chord distance. The past ~ 1,580 years show an interval of greater similarity (~ 850-400 cal yr BP) interspersed with episodes of change (~ 1,500, 1,000, and 300 cal yr BP), consistent with Late Holocene climatic transitions. In the recent period, fires and deforestation have promoted vegetation homogenization. Overall, these results document the response of temperate forests to climatic and anthropogenic forcing at centennial scales and highlight the value of integrating modern pollen rain, fossil records, and diversity metrics to interpret vegetation and environmental history.
Keywords: Anthropogenic activity; Temperate forests; Late Holocene; Pollen rain
Introducción
Las comunidades vegetales actuales incorporan señales del cambio climático acumuladas a múltiples escalas temporales que son evidentes en la distribución, fenología, dinámica demográfica y composición florística, pero su estructura y trayectoria también responden a otros motores de cambio, como el uso de suelo, régimen de incendios, especies invasoras, perturbaciones antrópicas y variabilidad natural (Jackson y Overpeck, 2000). Estos forzamientos configuran patrones contemporáneos, en los que el clima es determinante. En este contexto, el análisis de polen fósil preservado en sedimentos de hondonadas forestales es una herramienta robusta para reconstruir la historia de la vegetación y su ambiente (Calcote, 1995; Figueroa-Rangel et al., 2020). Los registros polínicos documentan cambios en la composición taxonómica a través del tiempo (Figueroa-Rangel et al., 2016) y mediante un enfoque espacio-temporal, la paleoecología permite interpretar la dinámica de los ecosistemas y las respuestas de la vegetación frente a variaciones y perturbaciones ambientales (Trivi de Mandri et al., 2006).
La reconstrucción paleoecológica se basa en el supuesto de que existe una estrecha relación entre las especies de plantas presentes en el bosque y el polen que éste produce (Erdtman, 1943; Faegri e Iversen, 1989). El polen se libera y se dispersa durante la maduración y apertura de los sacos polínicos y es depositado como sedimento en capas del suelo donde se preserva en condiciones ambientales adecuadas (húmedas y anóxicas). Al analizar los conjuntos de polen fósil presentes en estos sedimentos, es posible inferir la composición de la vegetación que existió en el pasado. Así mismo, la lluvia de polen moderno desempeña un papel importante para comprender la representación del polen en las secuencias sedimentarias y calibrar la interpretación basada en estos registros. El análisis de los conjuntos de polen moderno permite establecer la relación entre la abundancia relativa del polen y la presencia de diferentes especies de plantas en la vegetación actual (Rodríguez-Pérez et al., 2025). Lo que contribuye a mejorar la interpretación de los conjuntos de polen fósil y una comprensión más precisa de los cambios de la vegetación a lo largo del tiempo (Lozano-García et al., 2014).
La abundancia de polen en los sedimentos resulta de la interacción de factores biológicos de las especies fuente como la productividad, modo de dispersión y preservación a través del tiempo (Davis, 1984), además de factores ecológicos locales que integran la estructura de la vegetación desde el rodal hasta su entorno inmediato (diámetro y altura de los árboles, área basal, densidad, frecuencia, composición y fenología), modulando el transporte y la deposición del polen (Davies y Fall, 2001; Faegri e Iversen, 1989), y así mismo de las condiciones físicas de los sedimentos del sitio como el tamaño y morfología del sustrato, oxidación y frecuencia de inundación (Davies y Fall, 2001; Faegri y van der Pijl, 1979; Proctor et al., 1996); finalmente, de las características climáticas y la calidad de la identificación palinológica (Escarraga-Paredes et al., 2014). Por lo tanto, el análisis del polen fósil y el estudio de las lluvias de polen moderno son herramientas complementarias que permiten reconstruir la historia de la vegetación y su ambiente, especialmente en regiones donde no se dispone de información sobre la producción y dispersión de polen (Wright, 1967).
Para comprender mejor la dinámica de la vegetación, es necesario abordarla desde una perspectiva espacio-temporal, donde diferentes procesos físicos y biológicos influyen en los patrones observados en cada escala temporal. Las respuestas de la vegetación a corto plazo se pueden interpretar a través de eventos como incendios, huracanes, enfermedades y extracción de madera, mientras que a largo plazo están involucrados los mecanismos de perturbación ambiental y el desarrollo evolutivo (Delcourt et al., 1983). La escala espacial permite comprender cómo los diferentes tipos de vegetación cercanos geográficamente responden de forma diferenciada en eventos de corto o largo plazo, tales como los regímenes de perturbación y fluctuaciones climáticas (Figueroa-Rangel y Olvera-Vargas, 2018). En este sentido, se han realizado diversos estudios con el uso de polen fósil para reconstruir la historia de la vegetación y el clima en el occidente de México, durante el Holoceno tardío (Figueroa-Rangel et al., 2008; Lozano-García et al., 2021). Estos estudios han proporcionado herramientas para evaluar la paleovegetación y los escenarios climáticos en las regiones de alta montaña y en las regiones tropicales. Sin embargo, se ha prestado poca atención a la comprensión de las relaciones cuantitativas entre la lluvia de polen y la vegetación moderna para la interpretación de la historia de la vegetación y el clima con base en datos de polen fósil.
Un área de gran importancia para realizar estudios que combinen registros de polen fósil y moderno es la región de la sierra de Cacoma, ubicada en el occidente de México. Esta región se destaca por su alta diversidad biológica y endemismo de flora y fauna (Conabio, 2010). Se encuentra en una zona de transición biogeográfica con un rango altitudinal de 650 a 2,740 m, con zonas de transición entre tipos de vegetación templada y tropical (INEGI, 2015). Las zonas de mayor elevación comprenden topografías abruptas, con valles y barrancas profundas que forman microclimas que han servido de refugio para varias comunidades de plantas (Amador-Cruz et al., 2024). Por lo tanto, el presente estudio tiene como objetivo evaluar, mediante el análisis de ensambles de polen moderno y su correspondencia con la estructura de la vegetación, si el espectro de polen fósil refleja los patrones de la distribución actual de la vegetación. Para ello, se plantean los siguientes objetivos: 1) caracterizar la composición taxonómica y la representatividad de la lluvia de polen moderno en el bosque de Pinus–Quercus–Abies en la localidad de La Cumbre de Guadalupe en el municipio de Talpa de Allende, Jalisco, identificando los principales taxones y su relación con la vegetación fuente, 2) analizar la correspondencia entre la estructura de la vegetación actual y la señal polínica mediante análisis cuantitativos de la abundancia del polen moderno y 3) comparar la similitud taxonómica entre los ensambles de polen moderno y fósil de los últimos ~ 1,580 años. Este enfoque permitirá fortalecer la interpretación de los registros paleoecológicos en la región y contribuir al conocimiento sobre las relaciones entre la vegetación actual y la señal polínica moderna en los ecosistemas de alta montaña.
Materiales y métodos
El área de estudio se localiza en la sierra de Cacoma al occidente de Jalisco, México, en la localidad denominada La Cumbre de Guadalupe, una región de confluencia entre la cordillera del Eje Neovolcánico Transversal y la sierra Madre del Sur (fig. 1). Corresponde a una elevación de 2,119 m y se extiende hasta el litoral del Pacífico y la costa del occidente de México (INEGI, 2015). Es una zona de gran complejidad geomorfológica y litológica con afloramientos rocosos formados a partir de procesos tectónicos durante el Cretácico (Conabio, 2010). En el área de estudio domina el tipo de roca ígnea extrusiva, donde la unidad geomorfológica comprende laderas de montaña con pendientes de mediana a muy fuertemente inclinadas (Rodríguez-González, 2015). Los tipos de suelo dominantes son Cambisol y Regosol (INEGI, 2015). Presenta un clima templado subhúmedo, con una temperatura media anual de 14.2 °C. La temperatura media del mes más cálido (mayo y junio) es de 16.7 °C, mientras que la temperatura media del mes más frío es 10.8 (enero y febrero), con una precipitación promedio anual de 2,003 mm con lluvias en verano. La precipitación está concentrada entre mayo a septiembre (Estación 14271, Servicio Meteorológico Nacional, Conagua, 2025). Las principales actividades productivas son la agricultura de temporal, con apertura de áreas para el establecimiento de pastizales, la minería y la extracción de madera (Vargas-Rodríguez et al., 2010).
El bosque de Pinus–Quercus–Abies es una asociación vegetal con distribución restringida cerca del límite altitudinal de la vegetación arbórea (Cuevas-Guzmán et al., 2011; del Castillo-Batista et al., 2018). En diversos estudios florísticos de la zona se ha encontrado una alta diversidad florística para numerosas formaciones vegetales de alta montaña, entre ellas el bosque de Pinus con diferentes asociaciones vegetales (Cuevas-Guzmán et al., 2011; Guerrero-Hernández et al., 2014, 2019). Los tipos de bosque de alta montaña son representados principalmente por bosques de coníferas, donde los géneros representativos son Pinus, Abies, Cupressus, Juniperus y algunas latifoliadas como Quercus, Alnus y Arbutus (Perry et al., 1998).
La diversidad florística del área de estudio corresponde a un tipo de vegetación dominado en el estrato arbóreo por Abies jaliscana, A. religiosa, Alnus acuminata, A. jorullensis, Arbutus xalapensis, Carpinus tropicalis, Clethra fragrans, Pinus devoniana, P. douglasiana, P. oocarpa, P. jaliscana, P. herrerae, P. pseudostrobus, Podachaenium eminens, Quercus castanea, Q. calophylla, Q. scytophylla, Q. magnoliifolia, Q. obtusata y Ternstroemia lineata. Se encuentran algunos arbustos dominantes como Archibaccharis serratifolia, Baccharis heterophylla, B. pteronioides, Fuchsia microphylla, Mimosa albida, Monnina ciliolata y Salvia iodantha. El componente herbáceo es diverso, como Amaranthuspalmeri, Chenopodiumambrosoides, Iresine diffusa, Antigononflavescens, Eryngium alternatum, Bidens odorata, B. aurea, Dahlia coccinea, Ageratina choricephala, Fuchsia fulgens, Rumfordia floribunda, Melampodium perfoliatum, Piqueria triflora, Tagetes filifolia, T. lucida, Crotalaria filifolia, C. mollicula, Dalea obreniformis. Por lo que en este estudio nos referimos a este tipo de vegetación como bosque de Pinus–Quercus–Abies (BPQA) por ser los taxones dominantes.
Figura 1. Área de estudio donde se muestran las parcelas en el bosque de Pinus-Quercus-Abies en la sierra de Cacoma, en la localidad de la Cumbre de Guadalupe, en Talpa de Allende, Jalisco, México.
Se realizó un inventario de la vegetación leñosa en 14 parcelas circulares de 500 m2 cada una, siguiendo el protocolo estándar de Olvera-Vargas y Figueroa-Rangel (2023). Cada parcela se ubicó a una distancia mínima de 50 m respecto de las demás. En cada una se registraron datos ambientales y de localización (localidad, coordenadas, elevación, exposición y pendiente) (material suplementario: tabla S1). Para todos los taxones leñosos con diámetros ≥ 2.5 cm arriba de 1.30 m del nivel del suelo (DN). Con estas mediciones se estimaron indicadores estructurales a nivel de parcela, incluyendo densidad (individuos ha-1) y área basal (m2 ha-1). Se recolectaron ejemplares de herbario para confirmar la determinación taxonómica de las especies. La clasificación de familias siguió el sistema Angiosperm Phylogeny Group IV (2016) y la actualización nomenclatural se verificó en la base de datos Tropicos (www.tropicos.org). Este diseño y conjunto de métricas permiten caracterizar de manera comparable la estructura y composición de la vegetación en el área de estudio.
Se recolectaron 22 muestras de polen moderno dentro de las parcelas para evaluar la relación polen-vegetación a escala local (tabla S1). En cada parcela se establecieron subparcelas de 1 m2, dentro de las cuales se obtuvieron muestras de sedimento superficial (suelo y musgo) a una profundidad de 0-5 cm (Hjelle, 1999). Cada muestra se almacenó para su posterior extracción y análisis. Dado que los ambientes de depósito reciben polen de fuentes locales y regionales, el espectro palinológico está condicionado por procesos tafonómicos modulados por el clima y las propiedades del suelo, lo que afecta la relación polen-vegetación observada (Jacobson y Bradshaw, 1981). En este contexto, asumimos que la señal obtenida es representativa del ecosistema fuente a la escala de captura de nuestros sustratos. Si bien superficies extensas como lagos y humedales maximizan el componente regional y facilitan el vínculo con paleorregistros (Markgraf et al., 2002; Ortuño et al., 2011), el muestreo de sedimento superficial aporta la resolución local necesaria para calibrar e interpretar esa señal más integrada en el sitio de estudio.
Con la finalidad de comparar la relación entre el polen moderno y fósil, se extrajo un núcleo de sedimento que abarca los últimos 1,580 años en el BPQA (del Castillo-Batista et al., 2018). El muestreo consistió en la extracción de un núcleo de sedimento de 62 cm de profundidad con un taladro Eijelkamp (“forest hollow”, sensu Calcote 1995, 1998), en un área abierta del bosque a 2,119 m de elevación en la localidad de La Cumbre de Guadalupe (20°10’17.82” N, 104°42’42.32” O) (fig. 1). Se tomaron muestras de sedimento cada 1 cm para su análisis. La cronología se determinó con base en 4 fechados radiocarbono 14C por medio de la técnica AMS (por sus siglas en inglés, accelerator mass spectrometer) en el laboratorio Beta Analytic, Miami, Florida. Para la calibración en años calendáricos fueron utilizados los programas INCAL04.14 y CALIB v.5.02 de Stuiver y Reimer (Stuiver y Reimer, 1993). Para elaborar la cronología se obtuvo un modelo edad-profundidad por interpolación lineal de acuerdo con el método de Bennett (1994), con el apoyo del software Psimpoll (v. 4.25), lo que permitió estimar la tasa de sedimentación promedio de 25 años/cm.
Para la extracción de polen moderno y el polen fósil de las secuencias sedimentarias, se siguió un protocolo estándar de acetólisis Bennett y Willis (2001). Se agregó una pastilla de Lycopodium clavatum L. (Batch 3862) a cada muestra con el fin de estimar la concentración de granos de polen por cm3 (Stockmarr, 1971). Para obtener el tamaño de muestra estadísticamente significativo, se contabilizaron 400 granos de polen por muestra (Maher, 1972). La determinación de polen y esporas se realizó utilizando la colección de referencia palinológica “The Mexican reference collection of Global Pollen Project” (Figueroa-Rangel, 2017), además de claves palinológicas y bibliografía especializada. Para armonizar la resolución taxonómica entre los ensambles de polen fósil y moderno (en los que no siempre es posible asignar el nivel taxonómico de especie) se elaboró una tabla de equivalencias (material suplementario: tabla S2) que vincula cada tipo de polen moderno con sus especies vegetales potencialmente representadas, agrupadas por forma biológica. Los conteos de polen se expresaron como la suma total en porcentaje del polen de árboles, arbustos, herbáceas y esporas de Pteridophyta sensu lato, consideradas en este trabajo como abundancia de polen (Bennett y Willis, 2001). El polen desconocido se contó, pero fue excluido de la suma total de polen en ambos ensambles. El diagrama de polen fósil se elaboró en Psimpoll (v. 4.25) (Bennett, 2005), mientras que, el de polen moderno en el programa Tilia Graph (Grimm, 2020).
La contribución de cada una de las especies encontradas en la vegetación se estimó utilizando el índice de valor de importancia (IVI) para árboles (Matteucci y Colma, 1982; Whittaker, 1967). Este índice es un valor ponderado de la estructura del bosque, se calcula sumando las variables estructurales de la densidad relativa (número de árboles del taxón dividido entre el número total de árboles de todos los taxones), la frecuencia relativa (número de muestras en las que el taxón aparece dividido entre el número total de muestras) y el área basal relativa (área basal total del taxón dividida entre el área basal total de todos los taxones) (Cottam y Curtis, 1956). De esta manera, el IVI proporciona una medida de la importancia relativa de cada especie en el rodal. Así mismo, para el componente arbóreo se estimó la media de diámetro y altura por especie de todas las parcelas muestreadas.
Para describir la distribución de los diámetros y las alturas de las especies arbóreas en las parcelas muestreadas, se estimó la media del diámetro a la altura de 1.30 m (DN) y la altura total por especie. Se utilizaron diagramas de caja y bigote para identificar la mediana, los cuartiles (Q1 y Q3), el rango intercuartílico y la presencia de valores atípicos, proporcionando información sobre la variabilidad y la tendencia central de cada variable. El análisis fue realizado mediante el software estadístico R Project 3.6.1 (Ihaka y Gentleman,1993).
Para analizar la relación entre las especies y las parcelas basados en el método de Olvera-Vargas y Figueroa-Rangel (2023) se realizó un Análisis de Conglomerados. Es una técnica estadística multivariada que tiene como objetivo agrupar elementos o variables para lograr la máxima homogeneidad dentro de cada grupo y la mayor diferencia entre los grupos. Se trata de una clasificación jerárquica aglomerativa (Clarke y Gorley, 2015). Se utilizó la matriz de densidad de las especies, la cual fue transformada con una doble raíz cuadrada para mejorar la ponderación de las especies raras y abundantes. El análisis se realizó utilizando la medida de distancia Bray-Curtis y como método de unión de grupos de los promedios ponderados, con el apoyo del software PRIMER V.7 (Clarke y Gorley, 2015).
Utilizando datos de presencia-ausencia del polen moderno y de la vegetación, se calcularon 3 índices de asociación R (Davis, 1984), el índice de asociación (A), el índice de sobrerrepresentación (O) y el índice de subrepresentación (U). Estos índices permiten determinar si los taxones están presentes de manera simultánea, tanto en el conjunto de polen como en la vegetación (León-Carreño et al., 2019). Se calcularon con las fórmulas que se describen a continuación:
A = B0 / P0 + P1 + B0
O = P0 / P0 + B0
U = P1 / P1 + B0
Donde B0 corresponde al número de parcelas en las que tanto el tipo polínico como el grupo vegetal asociado están presentes, P0 representa el número de parcelas en las que se registra el polen, pero la planta que lo produce no está presente en la vegetación, y P1 es el número de parcelas en las que el tipo de polen está ausente pero el taxón vegetal se encuentra presente en la vegetación. Los valores del índice de asociación varían entre 0 y 1; donde A = 1 indica que el tipo polínico y el taxón vegetal están siempre presentes y si A = 0, alguno de los 2 elementos se encuentra ausente en todos los levantamientos. Posteriormente, los valores de los índices de cada taxón se agruparon en las siguientes categorías: 1) tipo fuertemente asociado “TFA” cuando A > 0.65; 2) tipo asociado “TA”, cuando A varía entre 0.65 y 0.5; 3) tipo débilmente asociado “TDA”, donde A < 0.5 y además O y U son positivos; 4) tipo sobrerrepresentado “TOR”, cuando A < 0.5 y U = 0; 5) tipo subrepresentado “TUR”, con A < 0.5 y O = 0, y 6) tipo no asociado “TNA”, en donde A = 0, además O y U son positivos (Fjordheim et al., 2018).
La diversidad de taxones de los datos de polen moderno y fósil se estimó mediante la diversidad de Hill N0 sumando el número de taxones identificados en cada conjunto (Hill, 1973). Se calcularon los valores de diversidad de Hill N1 para obtener más información sobre las características de diversidad del polen. Esta métrica considera la riqueza de taxones en cada muestra y pondera cada taxón según su abundancia relativa. Asimismo, se seleccionó el número de Hill N2 para representar el número de taxones de polen fósil que son muy abundantes (dominantes) (Figueroa-Rangel et al., 2020). Estos cálculos se realizaron utilizando la librería “vegan” (Oksanen et al., 2010), disponible en el paquete estadístico R-v3.4.3 (R Core Team, 2019).
Con el propósito de comparar la composición taxonómica entre los ensambles de polen fósil con los de polen moderno, se aplicó la función de comparación de análogos múltiples (analog.mult), que calcula índices de distancia o disimilitud entre las muestras de polen fósil con el moderno. Para ello se utilizó la distancia cordal (square chord distance en inglés) mediante la librería “paleoMAS” (Correa-Metrio et al., 2015) disponible en R (R Core Team, 2019).
Resultados
Se registraron 6 familias, 8 géneros y 17 especies en las 14 parcelas analizadas. Las familias con más riqueza de especies fueron Pinaceae y Fagaceae. Los géneros más frecuentes presentes en las parcelas fueron: Pinus–Quercus–Abies. Pinus pseudostrobus fue la especie dominante en el dosel del rodal por su IVI (tabla 1), seguida por Abies jaliscana, Pinus devoniana, Quercus castanea y P.herrerae, todos ellos identificados como elementos importantes de acuerdo con su IVI. Por otro lado, Q. scytophylla, Q. magnoliifolia y P. douglasiana presentan los valores más bajos de IVI.
El análisis de cuartiles de los diámetros normales de las especies arbóreas muestra que la mayoría de los individuos presentan diámetros inferiores a 60 cm (fig. 2a). Se observa una notable dispersión en la mediana de Vachellia farnesiana, lo que indica una alta variabilidad en el diámetro de esta especie. En contraste, Baccharis pteronioides, Monnina ciliolata y Rumfordia floribunda presentan diámetros más bajos y menos dispersos. Además, Pinus devoniana, P. douglasiana y P. pseudostrobus concentran los valores de diámetros más altos entre las especies analizadas. En cuanto a las alturas, la mayoría de las especies registran valores inferiores a los 30 m (fig. 2b). Quercus calophylla se destaca por su variabilidad en la distribución de alturas, mientras que Baccharis pteronioides, Monnina ciliolata y Rumfordia floribunda presentan alturas significativamente menores y con menor dispersión.
La clasificación de las parcelas generó 4 grupos, mismos que se formaron para la clasificación de las especies. Cuando se presenta el resultado a través del dendrograma de sombras, se observó que algunas especies como Pinuspseudostrobus y P. devoniana se encuentran en los 4 grupos de parcelas, pero en general, hay coincidencia de grupos de especies con los grupos de parcelas. Abiesreligiosa, Rumfordiafloribunda, Monninaciliolata y Arbutusxalapensis presentaron sus mayores abundancias en la parcela P10 y P11, mientras que Quercusherrerae, Q. magnolifolia y Q. castanea tienen su mayor expresión en abundancias en las parcelas P01, P02, P07 y P08 (fig. 3).
En el espectro polínico del bosque se identificaron 41 taxones, pertenecientes a 31 familias y 40 géneros, que incluyen árboles, arbustos, herbáceas y helechos (material suplementario: tabla S3). Pinus se registró como el taxón dominante en el estrato arbóreo, con más de 60% del espectro polínico. De manera similar, los taxones de Quercus (< 20%) y Abies (< 15%) se encontraron en todo el espectro polínico con porcentajes considerables. En el estrato herbáceo, Poaceae se registró como la más abundante, se encontró en todas las muestras con un porcentaje superior a 5%. Los taxones de Eupatorium (> 5%) y Baccharis (> 5%) se registraron con porcentajes bajos en el componente herbáceo. Polypodiaceae prevaleció con un porcentaje mayor a 5%. No obstante, el grupo de los helechos no alcanzó una representación importante en el espectro polínico (fig. 4).
Figura 2. Diagramas que expresan los cuartiles de los diámetros y las alturas de las especies arbóreas del bosque de Pinus-Quercus-Abies.Figura 3. Dendrograma de sombras que incluye las parcelas CUM1-CUM14 y las especies que aportan al menos 5% en una o más parcelas. La escala de blanco a negro representa la abundancia transformada mediante doble raíz cuadrada. Los espacios en blanco indican ausencia de la especie en la parcela.Figura 4. Diagrama de porcentajes de polen moderno del bosque de Pinus-Quercus-Abies en La Cumbre de Guadalupe.
El índice de Davis revela que la mayoría de los taxones polínicos se adscriben al grupo de tipo asociado (TOR); los taxones de polen de Pinus, Quercus, Abies, Arbutusxalapensis, Baccharispteronioides y Rumfordiafloribunda, pertenecen al grupo de tipo asociado (TA), mientras que Monninaciliolata es el único que se encuentra en el tipo subrepresentado (TUR). Ningún taxón demostró ser fuertemente asociado (TFA) (tabla 2).
Tabla 1
Valores relativos para densidad (Dr), área basal (ABr) y frecuencia (Fr) en árboles del BPQA. Índice de valor de importancia (IVI) para árboles y arbustos.
Familias
Especies
Dr (%)
ABr (%)
Fr (%)
IVI (%)
Asteraceae
Baccharis pteronioides (Bacpte)
1.02
0.02
4.23
1.86
Rumfordia floribunda (Rumflo)
15.90
0.39
4.23
6.84
Ericaceae
Arbutus xalapensis (Axal)
0.76
4.12
4.05
8.94
Fabaceae
Vachellia farnesiana (Vacfar)
0.76
2.80
1.41
1.66
Fagaceae
Quercus calophylla (Quecal)
1.53
3.48
5.63
3.54
Quercus castanea (Quecas)
5.98
12.84
9.72
9.51
Quercus magnoliifolia (Quemag)
1.91
1.10
4.23
2.41
Quercus obtusata (Queobt)
5.60
6.65
8.45
6.9
Quercus scytophylla (Quescy)
0.89
0.34
1.41
0.87
Pinaceae
Abies jaliscana (Abijal)
14.89
12.97
12.16
13.33
Abies religiosa (Abirel)
7.38
2.13
4.23
4.58
Pinus devoniana (Pindev)
9.29
14.61
11.27
11.72
Pinus douglasiana (Pindou)
1.65
3.08
2.82
2.51
Pinus herrerae (Pinher)
5.47
11.45
8.45
8.46
Pinus oocarpa (Pinooc)
4.20
2.80
5.63
4.21
Pinus pseudostrobus (Pinpse)
22.14
21.19
11.27
19.19
Polygalaceae
Monnina ciliolata (Moncil)
0.64
0.02
1.41
0.69
El diagrama polínico del bosque fue dividido en 3 zonas palinológicas mediante un análisis de conglomerados (CONISS) (fig. 5). A lo largo de toda la secuencia del ensamble de polen fósil, se observó un patrón heterogéneo caracterizado por la oscilación de los taxones leñosos herbáceos y helechos. La primera zona palinológica (C-1) corresponde al periodo de 1,580-1,550 años cal AP y muestra una mayor abundancia de taxones leñosos como Alnus, Pinus y Quercus. En cuanto a los taxones herbáceos, los más abundantes fueron Asteraceae, Cyperaceae y Poaceae. La segunda zona (C-2) corresponde al periodo de 1,550-740 años cal AP, abarca el periodo más extenso, presenta un patrón similar al anterior, con la adición de taxones de Fabaceae y Rosaceae. La tercera zona (C-3a) corresponde al año 740-700 años cal AP, se observa un patrón divergente caracterizado por una disminución de Aspleniaceae y Bromeliaceae. En los últimos 700-100 años cal AP (zona C-3b) se aprecia un patrón heterogéneo con oscilaciones en los porcentajes de Pinus, Quercus y Alnus en el grupo de los taxones leñosos, así como en los de Asteraceae, Cyperaceae y Poaceae en el grupo de las herbáceas. En contraste, las esporas como Hymenophyllaceae, Polypodiaceae y Sphagnum disminuyen considerablemente sus porcentajes (fig. 5).
La diversidad de Hill para los conjuntos de polen moderno para el orden N0, indicó que la riqueza es de aproximadamente 16 taxones (con un intervalo de confianza de 95%). Para el orden N1 y N2 obtuvo valores de 3.79-4.76 y 2.4-2.9, respectivamente. Para el conjunto de polen fósil, N0 indicó que la riqueza es de alrededor de 34 taxones (con un intervalo de confianza de 95%), mientras que para N1 y N2 fueron de 14.4-15.8 y 9.4-10.5, respectivamente (figs. 4, 5).
La comparación entre los ensambles de polen moderno y la secuencia de polen fósil de La Cumbre de Guadalupe (fig. 6) mostró distancias cordales al cuadrado que variaron aproximadamente de 0.30 a 0.72. A lo largo de la cronosecuencia predominaron valores intermedios (≈ 0.45-0.60). Se identificaron mínimos locales de disimilitud (˂ 0.40) en intervalos temporales estrechos, destacando un pulso centrado alrededor de ~ 850 años cal AP. En contraste, se observaron franjas con mayor disimilitud (≥ 0.65) especialmente después de ~ 1,000 años cal AP y hacia los extremos de la secuencia. El mejor análogo moderno por nivel fósil rara vez presentó distancias ≤ 0.35 y no se registraron valores cercanos a 0; por lo tanto, no se detectaron análogos modernos muy cercanos para los niveles analizados.
Discusión
El análisis de la vegetación actual en la sierra de Cacoma, Jalisco, muestra que la composición florística está dominada por especies de Pinus–Quercus-Abies como los elementos estructurales más importantes según el IVI. Estos resultados coinciden con estudios previos que han identificado a estos taxones como dominantes en los bosques templados del occidente de México (Cuevas-Guzmán et al., 2011; Guerrero-Hernández et al., 2014, 2019). La estructura diamétrica de la comunidad sugiere una comunidad vegetal joven, con la mayoría de los individuos de diámetros menores de 60 cm, lo que coincide con patrones observados en otras regiones montañosas donde la explotación selectiva ha modificado la distribución diamétrica de las especies arbóreas (Guerrero-Hernández et al., 2022).
Tabla 2
Índice de Davis. La columna de taxones muestra el nombre científico de las especies. (A) significa la asociación, (O) sobrerrepresentación y (U) subrepresentación de los taxones registrados en los ensambles polínicos, basados en datos de presencia/ausencia, tanto de lluvia de polen como de la vegetación del BPQA. Los índices de asociación se clasificaron en: TFA = tipos fuertemente asociados, TA = tipos asociados, TDA = tipos débilmente asociados, TOR = tipos sobrerrepresentados, TUR = tipos subrepresentados y TNA = tipos no asociados.
Taxones
A
O
U
Tipo
Pinus
0.50
0.33
0.33
TA
Quercus
0.50
0.33
0.33
TA
Abies
0.50
0.35
0.32
TA
Alnus acuminata
0.50
0.50
0.00
TOR
Alnus jorullensis
0.50
0.50
0.00
TOR
Arbutus xalapensis
0.50
0.40
0.25
TA
Cestrum
0.50
0.50
0.00
TOR
Cornus disciflora
0.50
0.50
0.00
TOR
Eugenia
0.50
0.50
0.00
TOR
Ficus
0.50
0.50
0.00
TOR
Fraxinus uhdei
0.50
0.50
0.00
TOR
Juglans major
0.50
0.50
0.00
TOR
Magnolia pacifica
0.50
0.50
0.00
TOR
Ostrya-carpinus
0.50
0.50
0.00
TOR
Ternstroemia lineata
0.50
0.50
0.00
TOR
Tilia mexicana
0.50
0.50
0.00
TOR
Zinowiewia concinna
0.00
0.00
0.00
–
Cupressaceae
0.00
0.00
0.00
–
Vachellia farnesiana
0.50
0.50
0.00
TOR
Baccharis pteronioides
0.50
0.38
0.27
TA
Rumfordia floribunda
0.50
0.25
0.40
TA
Monnina ciliolata
0.50
0.00
0.50
TUR
El análisis del dendrograma de sombras identificó 4 grupos de especies y 4 de parcelas, evidenciando patrones de distribución diferenciados dentro del paisaje forestal. La estructura de los grupos sugiere coexistencia mediada por diferencias fisiológicas y ambientales. El género Pinus domina en la mayoría de los conjuntos en congruencia con su especialización en hábitats de fertilidad baja a moderada y en condiciones abiertas impuestas por aridez, frío o disturbio, así como con historias evolutivas asociadas con altas frecuencias de perturbación, en particular el fuego (Keeley y Zedler, 1998). En contraste, Quercus y Abies conforman subgrupos bien definidos que reflejan preferencias por microambientes más fríos y húmedos (Cuevas-Guzmán et al., 2011; Guerrero-Hernández et al., 2022). La alta similitud florística entre algunas parcelas sugiere que existen factores ambientales y de manejo forestal que han promovido la homogeneización de la vegetación en ciertas áreas, fenómeno que ha sido documentado en otros estudios de dinámica de bosques templados mexicanos (Guerrero-Hernández et al., 2019).
La composición del ensamble polínico moderno refleja la estructura y composición del bosque montano dominado por Pinus–Quercus–Abies. La alta representación de Pinus en el espectro polínico (> 60%) es consistente con estudios previos que han demostrado su alta producción polínica y dispersión anemófila en ecosistemas templados (Castro-López et al., 2020), y coinciden con estudios de lluvia polínica en bosques del occidente y centro de México (Figueroa-Rangel et al., 2016; Lozano-García et al., 2014), los cuales reportan estos elementos con porcentajes superiores a 40% en Pinus y Quercus, mientras que Abies oscila entre 10 y 20%. Estos resultados se explican por los mecanismos de dispersión anemófila y por la gran cantidad de granos de polen que producen (Faegri e Iversen, 1989). La presencia de Quercus y Abies con valores inferiores a Pinus, pero aún representativos (< 20% y < 15%, respectivamente), coincide con su menor producción polínica y las características de dispersión de estos géneros, factores que afectan su representatividad en los registros polínicos modernos (Rodríguez-Pérez et al., 2025).
Figura 5. Diagrama de polen fósil del núcleo de sedimento CUM-N2 representando ~ 1,580 años de tasas de acumulación de especies del bosque de Pinus-Quercus-Abies. Se muestra la división de 3 zonas palinológicas mediante CONISS. La franja de color gris claro corresponde la Pequeña Edad de Hielo (PEH). La franja de color gris oscuro representa la Anomalía Climática Medieval (ACM). La escala muestra la profundidad en centímetros y la edad del sedimento en años calibrados antes del presente (años cal AP) (modificado de del Castillo-Batista et al., 2018).Figura 6. Índices de disimilitud de la distancia cordal en la secuencia de polen fósil y moderno a lo largo de ~ 1,580 años. La edad del sedimento en años calibrados antes del presente (años cal AP).
En cuanto a la vegetación herbácea, el predominio de Poaceae (> 5%) indica su importancia en los espacios abiertos del bosque y su alta eficiencia en la producción y dispersión del polen (Hjelle, 1998). La baja representación de Eupatorium y Baccharis (< 5%) sugiere que estas especies, aunque presentes en la vegetación actual, tienen una menor contribución al espectro polínico debido a sus estrategias reproductivas y mecanismos de dispersión, como la entomofilia (Faegri e Iversen, 1989). De manera similar, las esporas de Polypodiaceae, aunque registradas con valores > 5%, no alcanzaron una representación dominante en el espectro polínico, lo que puede atribuirse a que a medida que aumenta la altitud, la representación del polen de la vegetación herbácea disminuye (Markgraf, 1980).
El análisis de representación polínica a través del índice de Davis confirma que los taxones dominantes en el bosque se encuentran principalmente en el grupo de tipo asociado (TA), lo que sugiere una correspondencia adecuada entre la vegetación y el espectro polínico. El predominio del grupo sobrerrepresentado (TOR) para la mayoría de los taxones indica que ciertos elementos del bosque reproducen y dispersan polen en proporciones superiores a su biomasa real en el ecosistema (Jackson y Overpek, 2000). Monnina ciliolata, identificado como tipo subrepresentado (TUR), refleja una producción polínica baja por sus mecanismos de dispersión especializados, lo que puede dificultar su identificación en registros fósiles (Faegri, 1966). La ausencia de taxones en el grupo fuertemente asociado (TFA) sugiere que ningún elemento arbóreo o herbáceo presenta una correspondencia entre su presencia en el bosque y su representación polínica. Este patrón puede explicarse por síndromes de polinización especializados, bajas abundancias locales (León-Carreño et al., 2019) una estructura poblacional dominada por individuos juveniles con pocos adultos reproductivos, como sugiere la distribución de diámetros y alturas (fig. 2).
El ensamble polínico fósil refleja la dinámica de la vegetación durante los últimos ~ 1,580 años, que evidencia cambios en la composición florística asociados a variaciones climáticas y potenciales impactos antrópicos. El diagrama polínico muestra 3 zonas diferenciadas, que sugiere una transición en la estructura del bosque, desde una composición dominada por taxones leñosos hasta un escenario más heterogéneo en los últimos siglos. En la primera zona palinológica (C-1), la dominancia de Alnus, Pinus y Quercus sugiere la prevalencia de un bosque templado de montaña con condiciones húmedas, lo que concuerda con estudios previos en la región del occidente de México (Figueroa-Rangel et al., 2016, 2020). La alta representación de Asteraceae, Cyperaceae y Poaceae indica la presencia de claros en el dosel forestal y espacios abiertos con vegetación herbácea.
Durante la segunda fase, que abarca el periodo más extenso (zona C-2), se mantiene la estructura del bosque, pero con la incorporación de taxones como Fabaceae y Rosaceae, lo que podría indicar una diversificación de la vegetación secundaria y la posibilidad de fluctuaciones climáticas que favorecieron la heterogeneidad del ecosistema (Arellano, 2024). La estabilidad relativa de los elementos leñosos indica que, bajo condiciones climáticas favorables que sostienen la cobertura forestal, el bosque mantiene su estructura y composición con cambios mínimos, evidenciando una alta capacidad de persistencia frente a posibles perturbaciones de baja a moderada intensidad.
El cambio más significativo ocurre en la tercera zona (C-3a), donde se observa una disminución de Aspleniaceae y Bromeliaceae, lo que podría estar vinculado a un enfriamiento o a una reducción en la humedad ambiental, en concordancia con el evento de la Pequeña Edad de Hielo documentado en bosques de alta montaña del occidente de México (Figueroa-Rangel et al., 2019, 2020). Posteriormente, en los últimos 700 años (zona C-3b), la heterogeneidad en las oscilaciones de Pinus, Quercus y Abies sugiere periodos de regeneración y disturbio en el bosque, posiblemente por influencia de actividad humana (del Castillo et al., 2018). La disminución de Cyperaceae, Hymenophyllaceae, Polypodiaceae y Sphagnum podría estar relacionada con una menor disponibilidad de ambientes húmedos o la alteración de los suelos debido a disturbios naturales o inducidos.
El análisis polínico moderno confirma la composición arbórea identificada en campo, con la dominancia de Pinus, Quercus y Abies. Sin embargo, la diversidad de Hill indica una riqueza relativamente baja en el polen moderno (N0 = 16, fig. 4) en comparación con el registro fósil (N0 = 34, fig. 5), lo que sugiere una composición más diversa de la vegetación en el pasado. Esta diferencia podría atribuirse a la dispersión diferencial del polen, a sesgos tafonómicos en la preservación en el sedimento y a la representatividad desigual de ciertos taxones en el espectro polínico (Birks et al., 2011; Xiao et al., 2016). Estudios similares han reportado una disminución de la diversidad arbórea en el Holoceno tardío en otras zonas templadas y tropicales de México, vinculada a eventos de cambio climático y actividades antrópicas (Lozano-García et al., 2021; Ortega-Rosas et al., 2008).
El análisis de los ensambles polínicos modernos y fósiles revela patrones temporales de similitud y disimilitud que sugieren cambios en la composición y estructura de la vegetación a lo largo de los últimos ~ 1,580 años. La mayor similitud entre los registros modernos y fósiles se presenta entre ~ 850 y 400 años cal AP, lo que es congruente con lo reportado en la sierra de Manantlán alrededor de ~ 850 años cal AP, caracterizado por la disminución de Pinus y el aumento de Quercus y Alnus, lo que pareciera una contracción del bosque dominado por Pinus y la expansión relativa de latifoliadas (Figueroa-Rangel et al., 2016). Este intervalo coincide con la Anomalía Climática Medieval (ACM) (800-1200 d.C.), caracterizada regionalmente por condiciones más cálidas y en diversos registros, mayor aridez estacional congruentes con otras secuencias polínicas del occidente y centro de México (Lachniet et al., 2012; Metcalfe et al., 2010), donde Quercus y Alnus se han propuesto como taxones indicadores de sequía (Lozano-García et al., 2021).
La similitud observada hacia ~ 400 años cal AP se acompaña de una expansión relativa de Poaceae y Asteraceae, familias típicamente pioneras y asociadas a ambientes abiertos o recientemente perturbados. Este intervalo coincide con la Pequeña Edad de Hielo (LIA) (1300 y 1850 d.C.), un periodo más frío que el actual que pudo reducir la productividad del bosque, favoreciendo claros y paisajes abiertos propicios para el establecimiento de pastizales (Bradley y Jones, 1993; Mann et al., 2009). Adicionalmente, las perturbaciones antrópicas de los últimos siglos (cambios de uso de suelo, tala y fuego) posiblemente reforzaron esa apertura del paisaje, lo que incrementó la representación polínica de Poaceae y Asteraceae (Lozano-García et al., 2021).
Por otro lado, los periodos de mayor disimilitud identificados hace ~ 1,500, 1,000 y 300 años cal AP, sugieren episodios de cambio ambiental y posibles alteraciones en la vegetación local. Estos periodos de disimilitud se relacionan estrechamente con las 3 zonas identificadas previamente mediante CONISS. La disimilitud hace ~ 1,500 años cal AP coincide con la transición entre las zonas más antiguas de la secuencia, caracterizada por una menor representación de Pinus y un mayor aporte de taxones leñosos y herbáceos indicativos de condiciones más húmedas, lo que significa mayor heterogeneidad ambiental y cambios en la dinámica del bosque (Lachniet et al., 2012). Asimismo, la disimilitud hace ~ 1,000 años cal AP se asocia con un incremento de Abies y una reducción de taxones de ambientes abiertos, lo cual lleva a una reorganización en la composición del bosque, posiblemente asociada a variaciones climáticas durante la Anomalía Climática Medieval; estos episodios han sido relacionados con fluctuaciones de humedad y temperatura que afectaron la distribución de especies arbóreas (Figueroa-Rangel et al., 2016; Metcalfe et al., 2010). En el intervalo más reciente, aproximadamente los últimos 300 años cal AP, se observa un aumento de la disimilitud que marca la transición hacia una señal polínica moderna claramente diferenciada de los ensambles fósiles. Esta modificación puede estar asociada, por un lado, con la variabilidad climática vinculada a la Pequeña Edad de Hielo y por otro lado, con cambios de origen antropogénico posteriores a la colonización española, que implicaron modificaciones del uso del suelo y una mayor presión sobre los ecosistemas como los incendios y procesos de deforestación, que alteraron la estructura y composición del bosque y generaron ensambles polínicos distintos respecto de las condiciones previas (Lozano-García et al., 2021). Estos hallazgos resaltan la interconexión entre los procesos ecológicos y climáticos en la configuración de los ecosistemas forestales, y proporcionan evidencia sobre la sensibilidad de estos ecosistemas a los cambios ambientales pasados.
El análisis de los ensambles polínicos modernos y fósiles en la sierra de Cacoma, Jalisco en particular en la Cumbre de Guadalupe, ha permitido reconstruir la dinámica de la vegetación durante los últimos ~ 1,580 años, que evidencian cambios en la composición y estructura del bosque en respuesta a factores climáticos y antrópicos. Los resultados mostraron que la vegetación actual está dominada por Pinuspseudostrobus y Abies jaliscana, los elementos estructurales más relevantes. Esta composición coincide con la representación polínica moderna, donde Pinus–Quercus–Abies fueron los taxones dominantes, lo que refleja la relación entre el ensamble polínico y la estructura del bosque. Sin embargo, el registro polínico fósil indica que la vegetación del pasado presentaba una mayor diversidad de especies, lo que sugiere una mayor heterogeneidad de la vegetación en el pasado. La disminución de la diversidad efectiva en los últimos siglos podría estar relacionada con el impacto de eventos climáticos, como la Pequeña Edad de Hielo (~ 850-400 AP), así como la influencia de actividades antrópicas, como el cambio en el uso de suelo, los incendios y la explotación forestal.
El análisis de disimilitud entre ensambles de polen moderno y fósil identificó intervalos de mayor similitud estructural del bosque (~ 850 y 400 cal AP), intercalados con episodios de cambio (~ 1,500, ~ 1,000 y ~ 300 cal AP). Estos periodos coinciden con transiciones climáticas del Holoceno tardío, incluida la Anomalía Climática Medieval y la Pequeña Edad de Hielo, que modularon la composición de las comunidades vegetales. Asimismo, la evidencia indica que en los últimos siglos, la actividad humana (incendios, deforestación) ha alterado la estructura forestal y ha favorecido la homogeneización de la vegetación en algunas zonas.
Los hallazgos señalan la relevancia del análisis palinológico en la reconstrucción de la historia ambiental y ecológica de los bosques montanos del occidente de México. Futuros estudios podrían integrar un análisis multiproxy, como datos isotópicos y modelado climático, para mejorar la resolución temporal de los cambios en la vegetación y su relación con la variabilidad climática. Asimismo, se podrían desarrollar análisis de correspondencia entre los conjuntos de polen moderno y la vegetación actual para identificar los factores que explican la ausencia de ciertos taxones esperados, a pesar de la evidencia que indica una correspondencia entre la composición de polen local y la vegetación del bosque.
Agradecimientos
Agradecemos el apoyo financiero de los proyectos Conahcyt CB-2008-106435 y UDG-PTC-1403. Asimismo, agradecemos al Laboratorio de Paleoecología y Cambio Climático del Departamento de Ecología y Recursos Naturales del Centro Universitario de la Costa Sur, Universidad de Guadalajara, y al Laboratorio de Paleoecología, Paleoclimatología y Cambio Climático del Departamento de Dinámica Superficial del Instituto de Geología, UNAM, por las facilidades, el apoyo logístico y la infraestructura brindados para el desarrollo del estudio. El acceso a la zona de estudio fue brindado por los habitantes de la comunidad de la Cumbre de Guadalupe. También expresamos nuestro reconocimiento a quienes colaboraron en el trabajo de campo, así como a Carlos Armando Pacheco Contreras por la elaboración del mapa y el trabajo de campo. Finalmente, agradecemos a los revisores anónimos por sus observaciones y sugerencias que contribuyeron a mejorar este trabajo.
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Diversidad genética de Oenothera drummondii (Onagraceae), una herbácea de dunas costeras: implicaciones ecológicas y evolutivas
Raquel Aurora Hernández-Espinosa a, Jorge González-Astorga a, *, Yessica Rico b, Juan B. Gallego-Fernández c
a Instituto de Ecología A.C., Red de Biología Evolutiva, Laboratorio de Genética de Poblaciones, Carretera Antigua a Coatepec No. 351, El Haya, 91073 Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico
b Instituto de Ecología A.C., Centro Regional del Bajío, Red de Diversidad Biológica del Occidente Mexicano, Av. Lázaro Cárdenas No. 253, 61600 Centro, Pátzcuaro, Michoacán, Mexico
c Universidad de Sevilla, Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología, Av. de la Reina Mercedes, 6, 41012 Sevilla, Spain
We studied the diversity and genetic structure of Oenothera drummondii Hook. (Onagraceae), a dune plant with a mixed reproductive system, across 9 populations using 10 microsatellite markers. Plant genetic diversity is governed by intrinsic factors (i.e., reproductive system and dispersal) and extrinsic factors (i.e., population fluctuations and founder effects). We found moderate to low genetic diversity, with southern populations showing lower diversity, and northern populations higher. A separate study on self-compatibility revealed higher selfing in the south and lower in the north, suggesting a latitudinal gradient that may reduce genetic diversity in southern populations. Peripheral populations showed reduced diversity and greater differentiation, likely due to increased isolation and limited gene flow. Central populations near the Texas origin exhibited the highest diversity. Populations from Baja California (O. drummondii subsp. thalassaphila) formed a genetically distinct group, suggesting a separate species. Overall, genetic patterns in O. drummondii genetic diversity reflect historical and ecological influences, including mating system variation, floral traits, and pollinator dynamics. These findings support hypotheses such as center-periphery dynamics and climate-driven historical processes (e.g., post-glacial expansion), which may shape the species’ genetic landscape and suggest possible local adaptations to environmental changes.
Evaluamos la diversidad y estructura genética de Oenothera drummondii Hook. (Onagraceae), planta de dunas costeras con sistema reproductivo mixto; se usaron 9 poblaciones y 10 marcadores microsatélites. La diversidad genética en plantas está influenciada por factores intrínsecos (dispersión y sistema reproductivo) y factores extrínsecos (fluctuaciones poblacionales y efecto fundador). Encontramos diversidad genética moderada a baja, con menor diversidad en poblaciones del sur (Ojoshal) y mayor en el norte (Bolívar). Un estudio complementario mostró mayor autocompatibilidad en Ojoshal y menor en Bolívar, sugiriendo un gradiente latitudinal con incremento de autocompatibilidad hacia el sur, con posible reducción de diversidad genética. Las poblaciones periféricas presentaron menor diversidad y mayor diferenciación, asociada a menor flujo génico y mayor aislamiento; las poblaciones centrales, cercanas al origen de la especie en Texas, mostraron mayor diversidad. Las poblaciones de Baja California (O. drummondii subsp. thalassaphila) formaron un grupo genético distinto, que podría representar a una especie separada. En conjunto, los patrones genéticos de O. drummondii reflejan procesos históricos y ecológicos relacionados con el sistema reproductivo, características florales y las dinámicas de polinización, lo cual podría significar adaptaciones locales a cambios ambientales, y patrones de distribución genética asociados con ellos, como la hipótesis de centro-periferia.
Genetic diversity may be considered a crucial factor in determining the ability of populations to adapt and evolve, thus increasing their evolutionary potential (He et al., 2024). Understanding the drivers of genetic variation among plant populations is essential in evolutionary biology as this diversity is the foundation for adaptive potential and long-term survival (Chung et al., 2023; Wright, 1969). In plants, the factors that shape genetic variation can be divided into: a) intrinsic biological properties (e.g., the genetic recombination system, including ploidy level, reproductive system, and meiotic behavior; the mode of dispersal and pollination; and the life form), and b) extrinsic dynamic processes (e.g., fluctuations in population size due to bottlenecks, founder effect, invasions, and changes caused by ecological succession) (Duminil et al., 2009). The reproductive system is the intrinsic biological property suggested to be the major driver of genetic diversity in plants (i.e., heterozygosity and population genetic differentiation) (Koelling et al., 2011; Wright, 1969), as it influences the mating patterns within a population by determining the extent to which selfing can occur (Charlesworth, 2006; Raduski et al., 2012). Self-incompatible populations, for instance, are composed of outcrossing plants with a predominantly outcrossing mating system. Conversely, in partially or completely self-compatible plants, the mating system can span from outcrossing to mixed mating to complete selfing (Holsinger, 1991).
Small, low-density populations experiencing habitat fragmentation and isolation, with limited mate or pollinator availability, exhibit increased propensity for self-fertilization (Devaux et al., 2014; Whitehead et al., 2018). In situations where self-fertilization is evolutionarily advantageous, selection will favor changes in traits that facilitate selfing (e.g., reductions in flower size, reduced nectar, pollen and reduced herkogamy) (Opedal, 2018; Shimizu & Tsuchimatsu, 2015; Sicard & Lenhard, 2011). These changes can have consequences at the genetic level, including elevated rates of inbreeding, a reduction in genetic diversity within populations, and increased genetic differentiation among populations (Barrett & Harder, 1996; Ingvarsson, 2002). Furthermore, a principal consequence of predominant self-fertilization is the reduction in heterozygosity and intra-population genetic diversity, coupled with an increase in inter-population differentiation, when compared to self-incompatible plants (Hamrick & Godt, 1996). In contrast, clonal species are expected to exhibit higher levels of heterozygosity than self-incompatible species, but lower levels of polymorphism within the population and higher levels of differentiation between populations (Levin, 2012).
In addition to the intrinsic biological properties of the species, spatial distribution and demography strongly influence processes such as genetic drift, gene flow, and natural selection, which in turn shape the genetic characteristics of populations (Eckert et al., 2008). For example, species range size tends to influence gene flow and genetic differentiation between populations. Large distances between populations with large ranges would be barriers to gene flow (Lawrence & Fraser, 2020). Peripheral populations are predicted to exhibit reduced gene flow, greater isolation, and higher genetic differentiation. In contrast, populations in the center of the distribution would have higher gene flow and be less differentiated (Lawrence & Fraser, 2020). This may be exacerbated if the peripheral populations experience rapid cycles of colonization and extinction, and have associated bottleneck events or founder effects (Eckert et al., 2008). Dispersal ability also influences the amount of gene flow between core and peripheral populations. This has implications for the maintenance of genetic diversity. For example, species with large ranges but limited mobility have reduced gene flow between populations, resulting in greater genetic differentiation (Pelletier & Carstens, 2018).
The genus Oenothera (Onagraceae) is widespread with the majority of species concentrated in western North America (Overson et al., 2023), with some taxa extending to Central Mexico and South America (Wagner et al., 2007). Like other Onagraceae members, Oenothera species originated in the Nearctic region. Their diversification began 20 million years ago during the Miocene, an epoch characterized by colder and drier than the present. These conditions triggered both altitudinal and latitudinal forest retreats, creating ecological opportunities for herbaceous species that prefer open environments and can resist low temperatures and low humidity (Dietrich & Wagner, 1988).
The species of Oenothera contributed significantly to the early development of plant genetics, cytogenetics, and evolutionary biology. Since the work of De Vries in 1900 (Cleland, 1972), a great deal of information has been collected on the ecology, morphology, cytology, and genetics of the genus, giving it a great advantage as a model for study (Greiner & Köhl, 2014), especially on reproductive systems (Johnson et al., 2009; Raven, 1979; Wagner et al., 2007). The intricate evolutionary history of the genus reports several transitions in reproductive systems, which are diverse (Cleland, 1972; Johnson et al., 2011; Rauwolf et al., 2008). In addition, Oenothera has a unique genetic recombination system (Cleland, 1972). In some species, meiosis is accompanied by a rearrangement of chromosome arms that form structures known as rings. These rings segregate into the next generation and have significant implications for inheritance (Golczyk et al., 2014). They act as barriers to homologous recombination and alterations to the linkage balance (Overson et al., 2023; Rauwolf et al., 2008).
Our study focuses on Oenothera drummondii Hook. (Onagraceae), an herbaceous, short-lived perennial species belonging to the subsection Raimmania within Oenothera (Overson et al., 2023). The speciespresents different chromosomal configurations during meiosis, including the formation of bivalents and rings, but is not a permanent translocation heterozygote; so its reproduction is not expected to be clonal (Dietrich & Wagner, 1988). In contrast, the species displays a mixed mating system, encompassing both self- and cross-pollination (Dietrich & Wagner, 1988; Gallego-Fernández & García-Franco, 2021b). Despite exhibiting self-compatibility, its herkogamous large yellow flowers, and elevated stigma suggest predominantly outcrossing, particularly in North American populations (Gregory, 1964). Nevertheless, the species is capable of self-pollination in the absence of pollinators (i.e., sphingid moths and some hymenopterans) or under specific environmental conditions, such as wind, sand burial, and wave action during tropical storms, which are common in dunes and have an impact on the survival of individuals (Dietrich & Wagner, 1988; Gallego-Fernández & García-Franco, 2021; Gregory, 1964). Recent studies in North America showed that levels of self-compatibility vary from population to population, decreasing with increasing latitude (Gallego-Fernández & García-Franco, 2021b). Also, flower size decreased significantly with increasing latitude (Gallego-Fernández & García-Franco, 2021a). Given that all these characteristics could be reflected in the genetic diversity and genetic structure of the populations, we combined existing reports on life history traits, germination and self-compatibility levels, floral traits, dispersal modes, and genetic recombination system with our results of the genetic diversity and structure of 9 populations covering the North American distribution of O. drummondii (Gulf of Mexico and Baja California).
Figure 1. A, Distribution of Oenothera drummondii in North America. BOL: Bolívar, Texas-USA. MAT: Matagorda, Texas-USA. SPA: South Padre Island, Texas-USA. ALT: Altamira, Tamaulipas-México. MAN: La Mancha, Veracruz-México. OLM: Olmeca, Veracruz-México. OJO: Ojoshal, Tabasco-México. AGB: Agua Blanca, Baja California-México. PAS: Punta Arena del Sur, Baja California-México. B, Discriminant analysis of principal components DAPC. C. STRUCTURE bar plot of individual assignments of genetic groups (K = 4). The probability that an individual belongs to a particular group is represented by the colored bars. The order of the groups is the same as in A.
In this study, we addressed the following questions: 1, Does the genetic diversity vary between populations? Because different environmental conditions allow different evolutionary pressures to act in each population, we expect variation in genetic diversity and related genetic parameters such as heterozygosity and inbreeding. 2, Does the predicted variation in genetic diversity relate to intrinsic biological properties of the populations, such as selfing or changes in floral traits? If self-fertilization is the predominant mating system in the population, we expect populations to show smaller flower size, higher inbreeding, lower heterozygosity, and reduced genetic diversity (Ingvarsson, 2002). 3, Do populations closer to the center of the distribution have greater genetic diversity and less genetic differentiation than peripheral populations? Large distances between populations of species with large ranges would be barriers to gene flow (Lawrence & Fraser, 2020). Also, species living in coastal dunes commonly experience rapid cycles of colonization and extinction, and have associated bottleneck events or founder effects (Eckert et al., 2008). This effect would be exacerbated in peripheral populations (Lawrence & Fraser, 2020). We expect that populations at the edge of the distribution would have lower genetic diversity and higher differentiation than central populations.
Materials and methods
Study system
Oenothera drummondii is the sixth member of the series Raimannia within the subsection Raimannia in the genus Oenothera (Dietrich & Wagner, 1988). Its center of origin is in North America (Texas, USA) and consists of 2 subspecies with a disjunct distribution: O. drummondii subsp. drummondii, which is distributed in the coastal dunes of the Gulf of Mexico (from North Carolina in the USA to Campeche in Mexico), and O. drummondii subsp. thalasaphilla along the Pacific coast at the Southern tip of Baja California in Mexico (Dietrich & Wagner, 1988; Hernández-Espinosa et al., 2020). The 2 subspecies can be distinguished morphologically: O. drummondii subsp. drummondii have large flowers and long pubescent leaves, while O. drummondii subsp. thalasaphilla is characterized by having small flowers and small succulent leaves (Dietrich & Wagner, 1988). O. drummondii subsp. drummondii has been accidentally introduced into coastal dune systems around the world, and is considered invasive in several of them (Castillo-Infante et al., 2021; Dietrich & Wagner, 1988). The species is restricted to coastal dunes, inhabiting the dunes from the back beaches to the first dune ridges and embryo-dunes of the Gulf of Mexico and Southeastern USA (from Campeche to North Carolina) (Dietrich & Wagner, 1988; Gallego-Fernández & García-Franco, 2021b; Moreno-Casasola, 1988). From Louisiana to North Carolina in USA, O. drummondii shares its distribution with O. humifusa, another species within subsection Raimmania. Oenothera humifusa is an autogamous, permanent structural heterozygote (PTH), very similar to O. drummondii in growth form and habitat requirements. In the overlapped distribution, 2 basic types can be distinguished, although they are linked by intermediate forms that result from crosses between O. drummondii and O. humifusa (Dietrich & Wagner, 1988; Wagner et al., 2007). To ensure that the collection represented only O. drummondii and excluded the possibility of hybrids, the sampling was made systematically, beginning in Texas, USA, and continuing southward to Tabasco. Some of the populations collected were small and restricted to limited areas, in which all individuals were collected. The most illustrative example was the population of Ojoshal, composed of 9 individuals. We studied 169 individuals from 9 North American populations, and the 2 subspecies of O. drummondii (Fig. 1; Supplementary material: Table S1). Of these, 2 populations are from O. drummondii subsp. thalassaphila (Agua Blanca and Punta Arena del Sur), and the remaining 7 are from subsp. drummondii (Bolívar, South Padre Island, Matagorda, Altamira, La Mancha, Olmeca, and Ojoshal). We had information on self-compatibility and floral traits for 4 of the 9 populations evaluated (Bolívar, South Padre Island, La Mancha, and Ojoshal), since Gallego-Fernández and García-Franco (2021a, b) used the same populations in their studies (Supplementary material: Table S2).
Vegetal material
Leaf material was collected from reproductive adults of each population, for which 5 leaves per plant were sampled in paper bags with silica gel, and the samples were subsequently stored at -20 °C. When population density exceeded 30 individuals, 20 were randomly selected, and if within a population less than 20 individuals were found, as in Ojoshal, the entire population was sampled (Supplementary material: Table S1).
DNA extraction and microsatellite loci amplification
Ten microsatellite loci transferred to O. drummondii from other species of the Oenothera (Hernández-Espinosa et al., 2020) were used in this study: OenhaB105, OenhaD102, OenbidiA_C10, Oenbi2triA_A1, Oenbi2triA_D3, Oenbi39tri10, Oenbi2triA_H1, Oenbi39tri4, Oenbi2triA_E4 and Oenbi39di2. The extraction of genomic DNA was carried out according to 2 protocols: a) CTAB extraction, using 50 mg of dry leaf tissue (González & Vovides, 2002). The extracted DNA was subsequently purified using the PCR Clean-up & Gel Extraction Purification Kit (QIAGEN). b) DNeasy Plant Mini Kit using 20 mg dried leaf tissue following the manufacturer’s instructions (QIAGEN). The quantity and quality of the extracted DNA were verified on 1% agarose gels stained with Red Gel.
Microsatellite amplification was performed using 2 protocols. An initial PCR in a final volume of 10 µL containing total DNA, 2X reaction buffer, 0.2 mM of each dNTP, 1.6 mM MgCl2, 0.5 ng/µL BSA, 0.025 U/µL Taq polymerase, 0.5 µM reverse and forward primers, and 0.5 µM universal primer M13. For sample visualization, each forward primer was modified by the addition of an M13 sequence at the 5’ end (5’-TGT AAA ACG ACG GCC AGT-3’) that is complementary to an M13 primer labeled with either NED (yellow), HEX (green), or 6-FAM (blue) fluorophores. The amplification program consisted of an initial cycle of 3 min at 94 °C; followed by 25 cycles of 94 °C for 40 s, 50 °C for 40 s, and 72 °C for 60 s; 8 cycles of 94 °C for 60 s, 53 °C for 60 s, and 72 °C for 60 s, where hybridization of the M13 primer occurs; and a final extension at 72 °C for 10 min. A second PCR was performed using the Type-it microsatellite kit (QIAGEN), 1 µL of total DNA, and 0.2 µM of the forward, reverse, and M13 primers in cases where no amplification products were obtained from the first PCR after verification in 1% agarose. The amplification program consisted of a 15-minute cycle at 95 °C, followed by 20 cycles at 94 °C for 40 s, 50 °C for 90 s, and 72 °C for 60 s; 15 cycles at 94 °C for 60 s, 53 °C for 60 s, and 72 °C for 60 s. The final extension was performed at 60 °C for 30 min. A standard 400 bp marker and an ABI 3730 Gene Analysis System (Macrogen) were used to analyze the PCR products resulting from amplification. GeneMarker (Softgenetics, State College, PA, USA) was used to identify allele sizes manually. Oenothera drummondii is a diploid species, with amplifications consisting of 1 or 2 alleles per individual.
Statistical analysis
Presence of null alleles was evaluated using the FreeNA software with the EM algorithm (Chapuis & Estoup, 2007). The frequency of null alleles was estimated for each locus and population. FST values were calculated with FreeNA with the ENA algorithm for the correction of null alleles. The presence of clones in the populations was assessed with GenAIEx 6.503 software (Peakall & Smouse, 2012). Deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium for each locus in each population were assessed by the X2 test using the Benjamin-Hochberg procedure in GenAIEx 6.503 software (Peakall & Smouse, 2012). Linkage disequilibrium (LD) between loci was evaluated in Arlequin 3.5.2 (Excoffier & Lischer, 2010).
The percentage of polymorphic alleles (P), average number of alleles per locus (A), average number of effective alleles (Ae), observed heterozygosity (HO), expected heterozygosity (HE), and fixation index (F) were calculated in GenAIEx 6.503 (Peakall & Smouse, 2012). To estimate the patterns of genetic variation between and within the populations, we calculated the F-statistics (i.e., FIS, FIT and FST) (Wright, 1978). Additionally, FIS per population, considering null allele frequency, was estimated using INEST 2.2 (Chybicki, 2017), applying Bayesian method with 300,000 steps, sampling every 1,000 steps and burn-in of 30,000 steps. For the bottleneck analysis, the Wilcoxon signed rank test was performed for 3 mutation models: Infinite Allele Model (IAM), Stepwise Mutation Model (SMM), and Two-Phase Model (TPM). INEST 2.2 was used to run 100,000 simulations for each mutation. The relationship between latitude and parameters of genetic diversity (A, P, HO and HE) was evaluated using regression models (Sokal & Rohlf, 1995) in the R 4.2.0 program (R Core Team, 2020).
To estimate the molecular variation within and between populations, an analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) was performed using 1,000 permutations in poppr package in R 4.2.0 software (R Core Team, 2020). To determine isolation by distance (IBD), a Mantel test (Mantel, 1967) was performed between the matrix of genetic differentiation (FST) with INA null allele correction, and population geographic distances (Euclidean) using 999 permutations in the vegan R package (R Core Team, 2020). We measured current dispersal rates (m) using BAYESASS, in which m is interpreted as the fraction of migrants per generation in one population that is derived from another population (Wilson & Rannala, 2003). The Bayesian clustering algorithm implemented in the Structure 2.3.4 software (Pritchard et al., 2010) was used to clarify the genetic structure of the samples by assigning individuals to genetic groups. The simulation was carried out with correlated allele frequencies and with mixture models according to ancestry. All analyses used 100,000 replicates, a Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) burn-in period of 10,000 steps, and 10 replicates per K. The results obtained from Structure were processed with Structure Harvester (Earl & VonHoldt, 2012) to select the optimal K (highest value of ΔK) using the Evanno method (Evanno et al., 2005). Clumpak (Kopelman et al., 2015) and Distruct (Rosenberg, 2004) were used to visualize the bar graphs obtained in Structure. Discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC) using the R package adegenet with 1,000 permutations for validation was also used to analyze the genetic structure of O. drummondii. It was based on the genetic distances (Cavalli-Sforza & Edwards, 1967) for each pair of populations, using the INA correction (Chapuis & Estoup, 2007) for the presence of null alleles.
Results
Frequency of null alleles
The 10 microsatellite loci amplified successfully in 161 individuals from 9 populations. Statistical tests of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium for each locus in each population showed that most cases (50 of 78) did not deviate from equilibrium. For each population, the linkage disequilibrium analysis showed significant deviations in at least one locus. Mean null allele frequencies for all populations were low (0.06 ± 0.04). The mean null allele frequencies per population were moderate to low (0.01 ± 0.02-0.13 ± 0.14). Five loci exhibited high allele frequencies (> 0.2) in at least one population when analyzed across all population-locus combinations (Supplementary material: Tables S3, S4).
Genetic diversity
We detected 99 alleles for the 10 microsatellite loci. The total number of alleles detected had an average of 9.9 ± 5.6 alleles per locus, ranging from 4 for OenhaD102 to 23 for OenbidiA_C10. The level of polymorphism was high in all populations (mean 86.67 ± 14.14). The lowest percentage of polymorphism was found in Ojoshal (OJO), where 4 loci were monomorphic. The number of alleles per locus ranged from 1.80 in Ojoshal to 4.60 in Bolívar, with an overall mean number of alleles per locus of 2.28 ± 0.48. We found a total of 35 private alleles, ranging from 1 in La Mancha to 8 in Bolívar and Agua Blanca. The average effective number of alleles was 2.28 ± 0.48. It ranged from 1.58 in Olmeca to 3.06 in Bolívar (Table 1).
Expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.283 in Olmeca to 0.599 in Matagorda. The overall mean was 0.442 ± 0.104. The observed heterozygosity was also lowest in Olmeca (0.221), and highest in Matagorda (0.547). The mean total observed heterozygosity was 0.409 ± 0.097. The average observed heterozygosity was lower (HO < HE) than expected, indicating an overall homozygote excess. This is consistent with the results of the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium test, which showed heterozygote deficiency for at least 1 locus in all populations. However, the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium test also showed heterozygote excess in 4 populations: South Padre Island, Olmeca, Ojoshal, and Punta Arena del Sur. Of these, Ojoshal showed heterozygote excess at 5 of the 6 polymorphic loci (Table 1).
Table 1
Parameters of neutral genetic diversity of O. drummondii at 10 microsatellite loci. N = Sample size; P = percentage of polymorphic loci; A = mean allele number by locus; Ae = mean effective allele number; Ap = private alleles; HO and HE = mean observed heterozygosity, and mean expected heterozygosity; F = fixation index. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium deviations (p < 0.05), test is the number of polymorphic loci evaluated, and (-) is the number of loci with deficiency and excess of heterozygotes (+).
Population
N
P
A
Ae
Ap
Ho
HE
F
H-W deviations
Test
(+)
(-)
Bolívar
20
100
4.60
3.06
8
0.410
0.557
0.264
10
–
4
Matagorda
19
100
4.20
2.75
3
0.547
0.599
0.086
10
–
1
South Padre Island
20
80
3.60
2.54
2
0.385
0.433
0.110
8
1
1
Altamira
20
100
3.10
2.27
1
0.485
0.487
0.003
10
–
2
La Mancha
20
90
3.10
2.28
3
0.420
0.464
0.094
9
–
3
Olmeca
19
70
3.00
1.58
6
0.221
0.283
0.219
7
1
2
Ojoshal
9
60
1.80
1.61
0
0.489
0.301
-0.623
6
5
1
Agua Blanca
17
90
4.10
2.31
8
0.324
0.435
0.256
9
–
4
Punta Arena del Sur
18
90
3.30
2.11
4
0.400
0.420
0.047
9
1
2
Mean ± SD
18 ± 3.54
86.7 ± 14.1
3.42 ± 0.83
2.28 ± 0.48
0.41 ± 0.097
0.44 ± 0.10
0.05 ± 0.27
Table 2
Bottleneck estimation for 9 populations of O. drummondii. Significant values are shown in bold. SSM: Step mutation model, TPM: two-phase model.
Population
FIS (INest)
FIS (INest) 95% HDPI
Bottleneck test (p-value)
SSM
TPM
Bolívar (BOL)
0.2061
0.2061-0.3218
0.385
0.3473
Matagorda (MAT)
0.1221
0.0023-0.2274
0.0656
0.0421
South Padre Island (SPA)
0.0356
0.0011-0.0715
0.1913
0.1907
Altamira (ALT)
0.0051
0.0000-0.0049
0.0322
0.0245
La Mancha (MAN)
0.0214
0.0044-0.0568
0.0820
0.0486
Olmeca (OLM)
0.2446
0.2277-0.3479
0.9845
0.9845
Ojoshal (OJO)
0.0133
0.0000-0.0217
0.0264
0.0268
Agua Blanca (AGB)
0.0977
0.0586-0.1955
0.973
0.9625
Punta Arena del Sur (PAS)
0.0196
0.0000-0.471
0.5443
0.4556
Figure 2. Migration rates m in the groups found by STRUCTURE. Group colors match those found in Bayesian clustering: G1, Bolívar (BOL) and Matagorda (MAT). G2, South Padre Island (SPA) and Altamira (ALT). G3, La Mancha (MAN), Ojoshal (OJO), and Olmeca (OLM). G4, Agua Blanca (AGB) and Punta Arena del Sur (PAS).
The coefficients of inbreeding obtained using the INEST ranged from 0.0051 in Altamira to 0.2446 in Olmeca (Table 2). Three models were evaluated to detect the presence of recent genetic bottlenecks. The infinite allele model (IAM), the two-phase model (TPM), and the step mutation model (SSM). The SMM model has been suggested as a statistically conservative approach to detect microsatellite bottlenecks (Luikart et al., 1998). However, given the instability and wide range of mutation rates inherent to these markers, the TPM model may be the one that best explains the predominant mutation process at most loci (Di Rienzo et al., 1994). According to the TPM model, 4 populations in O. drummondii show possible recent bottlenecks: Altamira, Ojoshal, Matagorda and La Mancha (Table 2). Regression analyses revealed significant latitudinal clines in genetic diversity, with both alleles per locus (r = 0.69, p < 0.005) and expected heterozygosity (r = 0.65, p < 0.005) showing strong negative relationships with latitude. Latitude significantly predicted the percentage of polymorphic loci (r = 0.4, p < 0.05), whereas no significant relationship was observed for heterozygosity (Supplementary material: Table S5).
Genetic structure
When evaluating the distribution of genetic variation within and among populations, mean values of global inbreeding (FIT = 0.416 ± 0.163) and local inbreeding (FIS = 0.059 ± 0.195) indicated significant heterozygosity deficits. The mean value of genetic differentiation (FST) was 0.376 ± 0.132, indicating that 38% of the genetic variation in O. drummondii was due to differences between populations. Furthermore, genetic differentiation between pairs of populations was mostly high (> 0.15). Matagorda and Bolívar had the lowest differentiation (0.06), followed by Punta Arena del Sur and Agua Blanca (0.17), and Bolívar and South Padre Island (0.18). The analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) showed that most genetic variation was found among individuals (54%), followed by that found among populations (38%) (Table 3).
The Mantel test detected significant isolation by distance (r = 0.64, p = 0.002). The BAYESASS analysis revealed high diagonal m-values (G1 = 0.972 – G3 = 0.980), suggesting high gene flow within the individual groups. Higher gene flow was observed from G1 to G2 (m1 to 2 = 0.009) (Fig. 2). The results of the Bayesian clustering are shown in Supplementary material: Fig. S1. The most probable K with the highest value of ΔK = 479.023 was K = 3, followed by K = 4 with ΔK = 101.129. For K = 3, 3 clearly defined genetic groups were observed, with a very low proportion of admixture among them. In this case, the first group consisted of the Texas populations: Bolívar, Matagorda, and South Padre Island, and the northernmost Mexican population, Altamira. The second group included the 3 remaining Mexican populations in the Gulf of Mexico: La Mancha, Olmeca and Ojoshal, while the third group comprised the 2 populations on the Baja California Peninsula. For K = 4, the clustering is similar to K = 3. The main difference in this case was that the fourth cluster split the previous cluster containing the Texas and Altamira populations, indicating greater genetic correspondence between Bolívar and Matagorda (populations further north in the Gulf) and between South Padre Island and Altamira. Admixture was low, indicating that Oenothera populations are highly structured.
The Discriminant Analysis of Principal Components (DAPC), like the Bayesian method, also showed 4 groups (Fig. 1C; Supplementary material: Fig. S2). Consistent with the results of Structure, one group was formed by the populations of Baja California (Punta Arena del Sur and Agua Blanca). However, in this case, La Mancha was no longer grouped together with Ojoshal and Olmeca, which formed the second group. Altamira and La Mancha formed a third group that is closer to the fourth formed by the Texan populations (Bolívar, Matagorda, and South Padre Island). The DAPC results indicated the possibility that the Texas group was the ancestral group of the central Gulf of Mexico populations (Altamira and La Mancha). The other 2 groups were markedly more differentiated.
Table 3
Molecular variance analysis (AMOVA) of Oenothera drummondii populations.
Source of variation
df
Sum sq
Mean sq
Variance component
Total variance (%)
p values
Between populations
8
841.68
105.21
2.78
37.39
0.001
Among populations
153
807.84
5.28
0.61
8.21
0.001
Within individuals
162
657
4.05
4.05
54.39
0.001
Total
323
2,306.53
7.14
7.45
100
Discussion
In this research, we evaluated the genetic variation between and within populations of Oenothera drummondii throughout its range in North America, for which we used microsatellite markers. These markers demonstrated sufficient variability to resolve population genetic structure at high resolution, consistent with a previous study (Hernández-Espinosa et al., 2020). We also found that all populations were in linkage disequilibrium for at least one locus. Deviations may result from limited homologous recombination during meiosis when chromosomal rings are formed (Rauwolf et al., 2008). In O. drummondii, as in many Oenothera species, this limited recombination is reported to cause changes in the linkage equilibrium (Cleland, 1972; Rauwolf et al., 2008; Raven, 1979), as described in other ring-forming species of the genus: O. biennis (Larson et al., 2008; Levin, 1975; Levy & Levin, 1975), O. harringtonii (Skogen et al., 2012), O. hartwegii and O. gayleana (Lewis et al., 2016). The unique recombination system in the Oenothera is an attribute that has allowed them to colonize new environments from their origin in the Miocene (ca. 20 Ma), until recent times, successfully establishing themselves first in the Neotropics and then in Europe (Dietrich et al., 1997; Wagner et al., 2007).
Compared to other plants with similar characteristics in lifeform, reproductive system, geographic range, and dispersal mechanism, we found that Oenothera drummondii showed moderate to low genetic diversity. This is a short-lived perennial, self-compatible species with a mixed reproductive system and wide distribution (Dietrich & Wagner, 1988), and a variety of dispersal mechanisms (Gallego-Fernández et al., 2021). Mean levels of genetic diversity reported for other plants with mixed reproduction (N = 15, mean HE = 0.60), short-lived perennial life form (N = 29, mean HE = 0.55), wide distribution (N = 31, mean HE = 0.62), and water or wind dispersal (N = 28, mean HE = 0.61) (Nybom & Bartish, 2000), were higher than the level found in O. drummondii (mean HE = 0.442).
Historically, genetic diversity in Oenothera has been attributed to structural genomic rearrangements, particularly hybridization and reciprocal translocations that alter linkage relationships translocations (Cleland, 1972; Rauwolf et al., 2011), as the genomes in Oenothera were considered to be essentially “non-recombining” due to the formation of chromosomal rings during meiosis (Cleland, 1972; Golczyk et al., 2014; Rauwolf et al., 2008). In contrast, the reported genetic diversity in Oenothera species appears strongly influenced by their predominant reproductive system. O. biennis, a permanent translocation heterozygote (PTH), maintains higher genetic variation than O. drummondii, which exhibits a mixed mating system (mean HE = 0.69 vs. 0.44) (Larson et al., 2008). This agreed with the expectation of the “functional” asexual reproductive system of O. biennis, in which autogamy is almost complete and offspring are mostly clonal (Mather, 1943; Stebbins, 1957). Consistent with expectations for obligate sexual reproduction, self-incompatible, bivalent-forming Oenothera species (O. harringtonii with mean HE = 0.77, O. gayleana with mean HE = 0.53 and O. hartwegii with mean HE = 0.49 vs O. drummondii with HE = 0.44) maintained significantly higher genetic diversity than the mixed-mating O. drummondii (HE = 0.44) (Levin, 1975; Rhodes et al., 2014; Skogen et al., 2019).
In terms of its reproductive system, the self-compatible O. drummondii generally has large flowers and an elevated stigma, suggesting a high propensity for sexual reproduction, although it can self-pollinate in the absence of pollinators or in situations where self-fertilization is evolutionarily advantageous (Gregory, 1964; Sicard & Lenhard, 2011). Gallego-Fernández and García-Franco (2021b) assessed the level of self-compatibility of O. drummondii in the Gulf of Mexico, through germination essays. They evaluated 4 of the 9 populations in this study (Bolívar, South Padre Island, La Mancha and Ojoshal), and found that self-compatibility increased in low-latitude populations (La Mancha and Ojoshal), while lower for higher-latitude populations (Bolívar and South Padre Island). These results suggest a latitudinal shift towards greater selfing to the south of the distribution. It has been suggested that greater selfing in populations leads to a decrease in genetic diversity (Ingvarsson, 2002), which is consistent with the pattern of genetic variation found in this study. In agreement with the results of Gallego-Fernández and García-Franco (2021a), we found that populations with higher reported self-compatibility also had lower genetic diversity. On the other hand, in partial selfing species, reductions in genetic diversity are associated with changes in traits that facilitate selfing (i.e., reduced flower size, reduced nectar, pollen and reduced herkogamy) (Barrett & Harder, 1996; Shimizu & Tsuchimatsu, 2015; Tedder et al., 2015). According to the theory, it would be expected that the populations of O. drummondii with a higher self-compatibility, and lower genetic diversity (i.e., Ojoshal) would also show a tendency to reduce flower size, and populations with lower self-compatibility, and higher genetic diversity (i.e., Bolívar) would show an increase in flower size. However, Gallego-Fernández and García-Franco (2021a) found the opposite: populations showed larger flower sizes following a latitudinal gradient from subtropical (i.e., Bolívar and South Padre Island) to tropical (i.e., La Mancha and Ojoshal) climates. This result suggests that in O. drummondii there is no latitudinal correlation between a reduction in flower size and an increase in selfing, and thus to a reduction in genetic diversity. Differences in floral traits among O. drummondii populations appear to respond to both biotic (i.e., pollinators) and abiotic factors (i.e., temperature, precipitation), suggesting local adaptations to environmental changes (Gallego-Fernández & García-Franco, 2021a).
In O. drummondii the genetic diversity showed a significant increase with latitude, with its lowest values in Ojoshal and Olmeca, while the higher values were found in Bolívar and Matagorda, populations in the highest latitudes. The genus Oenothera appears to have originated in northern Mexico and the adjacent USA, and subsection Raimmania, to which O. drummondii belongs, is centered in this area (Dietrich & Wagner, 1988). Since older clades tend to have more genetic diversity (Willi et al., 2018), it would be expected that the greatest genetic diversity would be found in populations at latitudes closest to the center of origin (i.e., Bolívar and Matagorda) and that it would lower as populations moved away to the periphery of the distribution, as was found here. In addition to reducing population genetic variation through genetic drift, habitat suitability often decreases from the core to the edge of a species’ geographic range, leaving edge populations small and isolated (Sagarin & Gaines, 2002), as in Ojoshal. However, despite the small population size of Ojoshal, inbreeding was low, presumably because of its high selfing index (Gallego-Fernández & García-Franco, 2021b). Inbreeding depression is predicted to be lower in selfing species because recessive deleterious alleles are expected to be efficiently “purged” from populations (Winn et al., 2011), and selfing favors the selection of new recessive beneficial mutations (Burgarella & Glémin, 2017; Charlesworth et al., 1993).
The pattern of distribution of the genetic diversity found in Oenothera drummondii seems to be shaped by demographic and evolutionary processes (Durka, 1999; Hewitt, 1996). Historical climate-driven changes are known to still affect the present-day genetic diversity (Alvarez et al., 2009; Hewitt, 2000). As a result of sequential founder events during post-glacial recolonization, contemporary populations show reduced genetic diversity and increased genetic differentiation, especially at range margins (Eckert et al., 2008; Sagarin & Gaines, 2002). The above pattern was found in 512 North American herbs, showing that the shifting and fragmentation of species’ geographical ranges in the past 20,000 years has played an important role in shaping the genetic variation of contemporary populations (Benavides et al., 2019).
Regarding the populations in Baja California (i.e., Agua Blanca and Punta Arena del Sur), the results of both genetic diversity and genetic structure showed that they formed an independent genetic group, as expected given that the populations belong to a different subsp. of O. drummondii. However, based on the genetic differences detected and the evidence of differences in life history, vegetative and floral characteristics observed in the field at the time of collection, it is suggested that O. drummondii subsp. thalassaphila is a distinct species from O. drummondii subsp. drummondii (Table 4). A detailed taxonomic study and additional genetic data from new populations of O. drummondii subsp. thalassaphila will be needed to support this.
Table 4
Distinctive morphological attributes between O.drummondii subsp. drummondii and O. drummondii subsp. thalassaphila. Data taken from Benavides et al. (2019).
O.drummondii subsp. drummondii
O. drummondii subsp. thalassaphila
Habit
Annual herb
Perennial sudshrub
Stem pubescence
Strigillose to villous
Strigillose
Glandular puberulent hairs
Present
Absent
Cauline leaves
1-8cm, oblanceolate to obovate, densely villous, margins entire to remotely sinuate dentate
1-4.5cm, oblong lanceolate to oblanceolate, strigillose, marginis entire to coarsely dentate
Floral tube
2.5-5cm, strigillose to densely villous
2-3.5cm, strigillose
Sepals
2-3cm, strigillose to villous
1.3-2.5cm, strigillose, occasionally red doted
Petal length
2.5-4.5cm
2-3.5cm
Capsule
2.5-5.5cm, strigillose to villous
2-4cm, strigillose
Seeds
1.1-1.7mm
1.5-2mm, smooth
We conclude that the genetic diversity and genetic structure across the range of O. drummondii in North America suggest a latitudinal shift towards increased selfing and a decline in genetic diversity in the low-latitude populations. However, there is no positive relation between reductions in floral traits and increased selfing in the populations. Differences in floral traits appear to respond to biotic and abiotic factors, suggesting local adaptations to environmental changes. In O. drummondii, genetic parameters may reflect historical processes like climate-driven changes (i.e., the last glaciation), and patterns of genetic distribution associated with them, such as the center-peripheral hypotheses. The genetic attributes evaluated here suggest that populations of O. drummondii subsp. thalassaphila may represent a distinct species, but further evaluation will be required to confirm this hypothesis.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (Conacyt) by a scholarship (2019-000037-02NACF-29365), as part of a doctoral thesis directed by Jorge González-Astorga. This study was also supported by the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, Spain (MINECO Project CGL2015-65058-R co-funded by FEDER). We sincerely thank the assistance in fieldwork to collect plant materials: Rusty Feagin, José García-Franco, Alejandro Espinosa de los Monteros and Anwar Medina-Villareal. We also thank Janet Nolasco-Soto for the assistance in laboratory methods, and two anonymous reviewers for their comments and observations on the manuscript.
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In vitro propagation and adaptation of plants to ex vitro conditions of Kroenleinia grusonii (Cactaceae)
Dolores Adilene García-González, Juan Pedro Flores-Margez y Pedro Osuna-Ávila *
Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Av. Benjamín Franklin Núm. 4650, Zona Pronaf Condominio La Plata, 32310 Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México
*Autor para correspondencia: posuna@uacj.mx (P. Osuna-Ávila)
Recibido: 23 mayo 2025; aceptado: 14 octubre 2025
Resumen
Kroenleinia grusonii (Hildm.) Lodé, es una cactácea endémica del centro de México que enfrenta riesgos como la colecta ilegal o la modificación de su hábitat natural y se encuentra catalogada como en peligro de extinción. El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar concentraciones de 6-bencilaminopurina (BAP) sola o combinada con ácido indolacético (AIA) en la formación de brotes de K. grusonii e inducir la formación de raíces para valorar la adaptación de plantas a condiciones ex vitro. La inducción de brotes fue con BAP (0, 1.0, 2.0 y 3.0 mg/L), AIA (0.5 mg/L) y BAP (0, 1.0, 2.0 y 3.0 mg/L) + AIA (0.5 mg/L). Se aplicó AIA 0, 1.0, 2.0 y 3.0 mg/L para enraizamiento y la adaptación ex vitro de las plantas fue con musgo de turba y con una mezcla de musgo de turba y suelo natural (1:1). El mejor tratamiento fue BAP 3.0 mg/L con 5.13 ± 0.9150 brotes por explante. Se obtuvo 89 ± 0.03% de brotes enraizados y la sobrevivencia ex vitro fue de 68.75% en musgo de turba con suelo natural (1:1). Se estableció un protocolo para la propagación clonal de K. grusonii, lo cual representa una contribución para su conservación ex situ.
Kroenleinia grusonii (Hildm.) Lodé, is a cactus endemic to central Mexico, that faces risks such as illegal collection or modification of its natural habitat and is listed as endangered. The objective of this work was to evaluate different concentrations of 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) alone or combined with indoleacetic acid (IAA) in K. grusonii and to induce root formation to assess plant adaptation to ex vitro conditions. Shoot induction was with BAP (0, 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 mg/L), IAA (0.5 mg/L) and BAP (0, 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 mg/L) + IAA (0.5 mg/L). AIA 0, 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 mg/L was applied for rooting and the ex-vitro adaptation of the plants was with peat moss and a mix with peat moss with natural soil (1:1). The best treatment was BAP 3.0 mg/L with 5.13 ± 0.9150 shoots per explant. 89 ± 0.03% of rooted shoots were obtained and the ex-vitro survival was 68.75% in peat moss substrate with natural soil (1:1). A protocol for the clonal propagation of K. grusonii was established, which represents a contribution to its ex-situ conservation.
Kroenleinia grusonii (Hildm.) Lodé (Cactaceae), también conocida como la biznaga barril de oro, es una especie que se utiliza con fines ornamentales, gastronómicos y agropecuarios (Rodríguez et al., 2021). La especie se distribuye principalmente en el centro de México en los estados de Guanajuato, Querétaro, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí y Zacatecas (Lodé, 2014). Se encuentra en riesgo de desaparecer debido a la destrucción de su hábitat natural, ya que sus poblaciones se encuentran en deterioro por la colecta ilegal, el desarrollo urbano y la construcción de carreteras, entre otros factores (Pérez-Molphe-Balch et al., 2015; Villavicencio-Gutiérrez et al., 2023). Kroenleinia grusonii es un taxón endémico y debido a las adversidades que enfrenta, se encuentra enlistado en la NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010 bajo la categoría en peligro de extinción (Semarnat, 2019). La UICN (Unión Internacional para Conservación de la Naturaleza) la cataloga como especie en peligro (Guadalupe-Martínez et al., 2013). En consecuencia, es necesario implementar estrategias que permitan la propagación de esta especie para su conservación y protección sin afectar a las poblaciones naturales.
La propagación de las cactáceas se realiza, principalmente, mediante semillas; sin embargo, es necesario buscar otras formas (Manzo et al., 2022), en particular, cuando las especies se encuentran bajo algún estatus de riesgo y no es posible obtener suficientes semillas para iniciar protocolos de propagación (Pérez-Molphe-Balch et al., 2015). Una alternativa es el uso de herramientas biotecnológicas, como el cultivo de tejidos vegetales. Con esta técnica es posible la propagación clonal manteniendo la estabilidad genética clonal y obtener un gran número de plantas con fines de conservación ex situ (Torres-Silva et al., 2021).
Esta herramienta ofrece obtener una rápida multiplicación vegetativa comparado con la propagación tradicional (Mabrouk et al., 2021). Con esta técnica biotecnológica se reduciría el impacto que se ha creado en las cactáceas debido a la sobrecolecta (López-Granero et al., 2021). La técnica se basa en la totipotencia celular que incluye la expresión total del genoma presente en la célula, que permite la multiplicación aumentando el número de individuos (Almeida et al., 2021). Esta cualidad se ve incrementada por la adición de reguladores de crecimiento en el medio de cultivo, especialmente las citoquininas y auxinas, que favorecen el desarrollo de nuevos brotes (Civatti et al., 2017). El potencial regenerativo de las plantas puede variar dependiendo de diversos factores, como el genotipo, el explante utilizado y los reguladores de crecimiento (Torres-Silva et al., 2018).
En cactáceas se ha realizado la propagación in vitro utilizando diferentes explantes como lo son plantas adultas de Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mil. (Khalafalla et al., 2007), activación de areolas en Turbinicarpus pseudomacrochele subsp. lausseri (Diers et G. Framk) Glass (de la Rosa-Carrillo et al., 2012), secciones transversales o longitudinales de plántulas de Melocactus glaucescens Buining et Brederoo (Torres-Silva et al., 2018) o brotes como en Echinocactus parryi Engelm. (García-González et al., 2020). Un paso fundamental en el proceso de propagación in vitro es la formación de raíces en los brotes obtenidos (Ivannikov et al., 2022). La inducción de raíces se logra con el uso de auxinas o en ocasiones, sin la necesidad de aplicarlas (Martínez et al., 2016). Por ejemplo, en la cactácea Cereus peruvianus (L.) Mill. los brotes regenerados obtuvieron 100% de enraizamiento en medio de cultivo MS (Murashige y Skoog, 1962) al 25% sin auxinas (Sawsan et al., 2004). Los brotes enraizados son transferidos a condiciones de invernadero, que es la última etapa de la propagación in vitro (Jagiello-Kubiec et al., 2021). El objetivo de la presente investigación fue evaluar diferentes concentraciones de 6-bencilaminopurina (BAP), sola o combinada con ácido indolacético (AIA) en la formación de nuevos brotes de K. grusonii; así como inducir en los brotes la formación de raíces y evaluar 2 sustratos para su adaptación a condiciones ex vitro.
Materiales y métodos
Para la inducción de brotes, se utilizaron plántulas de 90 días de cultivo in vitro de Kroenleinia grusonii como fuente de explantes, que se obtuvieron de experimentos de germinación in vitro de semillas (Osuna-Ávila et al., 2025). A las plántulas se les eliminó la raíz y se utilizaron los ápices completos, los cuales se colocaron en medio de cultivo MS a una concentración de 100% de macro y micronutrientes. El medio de cultivo se suplementó con 30g/L de sacarosa, 7 g/L de agar tipo 1 y el pH se ajustó a 5.7 ± 0.1. Posteriormente, se adicionaron diferentes concentraciones de BAP, AIA y AIA + BAP. Los tratamientos utilizados fueron 8 y consistieron en lo siguiente: control, BAP 1.0, 2.0 y 3.0 mg/L, combinada con o sin AIA. La unidad experimental fue un frasco de 100 ml conteniendo de 20-25 ml del medio de cultivo con 3 repeticiones, se colocaron 5 explantes en cada frasco con 15 explantes por tratamiento y un total de 120 unidades experimentales. Los explantes fueron subcultivados 2 veces en las mismas condiciones cada 60 días. El número total de brotes por cada explante fue registrado después de 120 días de cultivo in vitro.
Los brotes obtenidos de la propagación clonal fueron separados de los explantes utilizando pinzas y se colocaron en medio de cultivo MS al 100% adicionado con diferentes concentraciones de AIA. Los tratamientos fueron 4 y consistieron en lo siguiente: control, AIA 1.0, 2.0 y 3.0 mg/l. La unidad experimental fue el frasco de 100 ml conteniendo 20-25 ml de medio de cultivo con 8 repeticiones, se colocaron aleatoriamente 10 brotes en cada frasco para un total de 80 brotes en cada tratamiento y 320 unidades experimentales. El porcentaje de formación de raíces se evaluó después de 90 días de cultivo in vitro.
Para la adaptación de las nuevas plantas a condiciones ex vitro, se procedió a retirarlas del medio de cultivo utilizando los dedos para ablandar el agar y posteriormente enjuagando las raíces con agua de la llave. A los brotes que formaron raíces, se les midió la longitud de la raíz primaria utilizando un vernier digital y se contaron el número de raíces que se formaron en la base del brote. Se utilizaron 2 sustratos, el primero fue musgo de turba y el segundo fue una mezcla de musgo de turba y suelo natural regosol con textura franco arcillosa, pH de 8 y conductividad eléctrica de 0.45 dS m-1 (IUSS-WRB, 2015) (proporción 1:1). Cada sustrato fue colocado en una charola de 54 cm × 27 cm con 128 cavidades, en donde se colocaron los brotes que formaron raíces. Las plantas se regaron cada 24 h con agua de la llave a capacidad de campo, manteniendo humedad constante del sustrato. Después de 30 días en condiciones ex vitro se evaluó el porcentaje de sobrevivencia.
El análisis de datos fue realizado con el programa estadístico SPSS versión 24.0 (IBM. 2017). Se aplicó la prueba de Kruskal-Wallis no paramétrica para muestras independientes (prueba X²), ya que se trataba de variables discretas (número de brotes y raíces) y de una variable continua (longitud de raíz). La comparación múltiple de promedios se llevó a cabo con la prueba de Bonferroni con un nivel de significancia de 0.05 y los estadísticos descriptivos fueron obtenidos.
Resultados
El número de brotes por explante fue significativamente diferente entre los tratamientos aplicados (p < 0.05). Los mejores resultados de brotación fueron con BAP 3.0 mg/L (fig. 1A), seguido por BAP 1.0 mg/L + AIA 0.5 mg/L (fig. 1B) con un promedio de brotes de 5.13 por explante en cada uno después de 120 días de cultivo in vitro. Cuando el BAP 3.0 mg/L se combinó con AIA 0.5 mg/L, el número de brotes se redujo a 3.6 ± 0.914 (tabla 1). Los resultados no fueron significativos en el grupo control con un promedio de 0.07 ± 0.067 brotes por explante y el AIA 0.5 mg/L con 0.40 ± 0.400 brotes por explante. Los tratamientos de BAP 1.0 mg/L, BAP 2.0 mg/L, AIA 0.5 mg/l + BAP 2.0 mg/L y AIA 0.5 mg/L + BAP 3.0 mg/L, formaron brotes; sin embargo, no fueron significativos con promedios desde 2.8 hasta 3.6 brotes por explante (tabla 1). Los nuevos brotes obtenidos, presentaron diferentes tamaños desde 5 hasta 18 mm de diámetro (fig. 1C).
Tabla 1
Número de brotes obtenidos en la propagación clonal de Kroenleinia grusonii a los 120 días de cultivo in vitro (n = 15).
BAP mg/L
AIA mg/L
Número de brotes
0 (control)
0
0.07 ± 0.067 b
1.0
0
3.20 ± 0.890 ab
2.0
0
3.13 ± 2.109 ab
3.0
0
5.13 ± 0.9150 a
0
0.5
0.40 ± 0.400 b
1.0
0.5
5.13 ± 1.055 a
2.0
0.5
2.80 ± 1.010 ab
3.0
0.5
3.60 ± 0.914 ab
Medias ± el error estándar, letras iguales no son estadísticamente diferentes (n = 80).
Tabla 2
Porcentaje de enraizamiento de brotes, número de raíces por brote y longitud de la raíz principal a los 90 días de cultivo in vitro de Kroenleinia grusonii.
AIA mg/L
% de enraizamiento
Número de raíces
Longitud de raíces (mm)
Control
66 ± 0.05 b
3.21 ± 0.385 b
21.86 ± 1.764 a
1.0
77 ± 0.04 ab
2.89 ± 0.255 b
19.98 ± 1.631 a
2.0
89 ± 0.03 a
4.68 ± 0.407 a
22.36 ± 1.583 a
3.0
84 ±0.04 a
3.18 ± 0.293 b
22.24 ± 1.688 a
Medias ± el error estándar, letras iguales no son estadísticamente diferentes (n = 80).
La tabla 2 indica que hubo diferencias entre los tratamientos para el porcentaje de inducción de raíces en los brotes cultivados in vitro por 90 días. Para el porcentaje de enraizamiento, se observó que el adicionar AIA al medio de cultivo MS promueve significativamente la formación de raíces en los brotes. Particularmente, con el tratamiento de AIA 2.0 mg/L que resultó ser el mejor con 89 ± 0.03 % de enraizamiento, en comparación con el tratamiento control que mostró 66 ± 0.05 % de brotes enraizados (tabla 2). Por tales motivos, el aplicar AIA 2.0 mg/L resulta ser, aproximadamente, 20% más efectivo para la inducción de raíces que el resto de los tratamientos.
Figura 1. Brotes de 120 días de cultivo in vitro de Kroenleinia grusonii. A, Regeneración de brotes con el tratamiento de BAP 3.0 mgL; B, regeneración de brotes con el tratamiento de BAP 1.0 mg/L + AIA 0.5 mg/L; C, tamaño de los brotes obtenidos con los diferentes tratamientos de propagación. La barra = 5 mm.
El número de raíces por explante fue significativamente diferente entre tratamientos (p < 0.05). La comparación de promedios muestra que el AIA 2.0 mg/L presentó el mayor promedio de número de raíces con aproximadamente 5 (4.68 ± 0.407) en cada brote. Mientras que el AIA 1.0 mg/L, AIA 2.0 mg/L y el control desarrollaron, en promedio, menos de 3.2 raíces por explante (tabla 2; fig. 2).
Figura 2. Brotes enraizados de Kroenleinia grusonii, a los 90 días de cultivo in vitro. A, Tratamiento de control; B, brote con raíz del tratamiento AIA 1.0 mg/L; C, brote con raíz del tratamiento AIA 2.0 mg/L; D, brote con raíz del tratamiento AIA 3.0 mg/L. La barra = 5 mm.Figura 3. Plantas de Kroenleinia grusonii adaptadas a condiciones ex vitro después de 60 días. A, Sustrato de turba de musgo; B, sustrato de turba de musgo y suelo natural (1:1). La barra = 5 mm.
En relación con la variable largo de raíz, no se detectó efecto significativo (p = 0.604). El intervalo observado entre los tratamientos fue de 2.38 mm en promedio, es decir, la variable mostró poca variación. Sin embargo, por los resultados obtenidos con AIA 2.0 mg/L, se muestra un promedio ligeramente por arriba que el resto de los tratamientos con 22.36 ± 1.583 mm (tabla 2). Después de 60 días en condiciones ex vitro, el mejor sustrato para promover la aclimatización de las plantas fue el de suelo de turba y suelo natural (1:1). El porcentaje de sobrevivencia que presentó este sustrato fue de 68.75% después de 60 días. Mientras que el sustrato de suelo de turba mostró un porcentaje de sobrevivencia inferior, de 60.93% después de 60 días (fig. 3).
Discusión
La conservación ex situ de cactáceas a través de la propagación clonal es una alternativa viable para las especies que se encuentran en alguna situación de riesgo (Torres-Silva et al., 2021). Con el uso de citoquininas, en algunas cactáceas que no forman brotes laterales, se rompe la dominancia apical y se promueve la formación de nuevos brotes (Lema-Ruminska y Kulus, 2014). Particularmente, con los resultados observados, el uso de BAP 3.0 mg/l promovió la misma cantidad de brotes que la combinación de BAP 1.0 mg/l y AIA 0.5 mg/l, lo cual indica que para obtener resultados significativos no sería necesaria la adición de auxinas al medio de cultivo. Ramírez y Salazar (2016) reportan que la cinetina 10 mg/l es más eficiente en la formación de brotes en los explantes que al combinarla con auxina en Mammillaria petterssonii Hildm. y Coryphanta radians (D. C). Britton et Rose. El resultado es similar en Stenocereus stellatus al utilizar BAP 4.0 mg/L y obtener un promedio de 8 brotes por explante (Martínez et al., 2011). Por el contrario, existen especies que han sido propagadas y que para obtener mayor formación de brotes sí requieren una combinación de citoquinina y auxina. Por ejemplo, en M. geminispina Haw. con cinetina 10 mg/l + AIA 4.0 mg/l obtuvieron 6 brotes por explante (Ramírez y Salazar, 2016). Melocactus glaucescens Buining et Brederoo con BAP 4.0 mg/l + ácido 1-naftalenacético (ANA) 0.25 mg/l presentó 2.5 brotes por explante y sin ANA, un promedio de 0.6 (Torres-Silva et al., 2018). En Echinocactus parryi reportan que es más efectiva la combinación de BAP 2.0 mg/l + AIA 0.5 mg/l al regenerar 2.9 brotes por explante, a diferencia de los tratamientos sin AIA en los que el número de brotes no fue significativo (García-González et al., 2020).
Una consideración importante en Kroenleinia grusonii es que el número de brotes se redujo de 5.13 ± 0.9150 obtenidos con BAP 3 mg/l a 3.6 ± 0.914 al combinar el BAP 3.0 mg/l + AIA 0.5 mg/l. Resultados similares se reportaron para Coryphantha retusa (Pfeiff.) Birtton et Rose, ya que al aplicar BAP 2.0 mg/l el promedio de brotes fue de 8.8 por explante y al combinar BAP 2.0 mg/l + ANA 1.0 mg/l el número de brotes se redujo a 4.2 (Ruvalcaba-Ruíz et al., 2010). Lo mismo sucedió con Pachycereus pringlei (S. Watson) Britton et Rose, con BAP 2.0 mg/l el número de brotes fue de 3.8 ± 0.3 y se redujo a 0.6 ± 0.1 al combinarlo con ANA 0.5 mg/l (Pérez-Molphe-Balch et al., 2002). Los resultados que se obtengan en la propagación clonal dependen del genotipo y de los reguladores de crecimiento utilizados (Montiel-Frausto et al., 2016).
Es de gran importancia establecer un sistema de micropropagación específico para cada especie, no obstante, la respuesta a la formación de raíces y la aclimatización ex vitro puede variar debido a las condiciones de cultivo (Elias et al., 2015). Con los resultados obtenidos en K. grusonii, el tratamiento control mostró una respuesta favorable a la formación de raíces en los brotes. Sin embargo, al utilizar AIA 2.0 mg/l, se logra 30% más de enraizamiento, lo cual significa que se pueden obtener 70 plantas completas. El porcentaje de enraizamiento en K. grusonii se podría considerar alto con la aplicación de AIA debido a que se han reportado porcentajes inferiores de enraizamiento en diferentes especies de cactáceas. Algunos ejemplos son Cereus jamacaru DC. con 70% (Monostori et al., 2012) o Mammillaria vetula subsp. gracilis (Pfeiff.) D. R. Hunt con 20% de enraizamiento (López-Granero et al., 2021). El uso de auxinas como el ácido indolbutírico (AIB) 0.1 mg/l en Hylocereus monacanthus (Hort. ex Lem.) Britton et Rose donde el porcentaje fue mayor que en K. grusonii con 100% de enraizamiento (Montiel-Frausto et al., 2016). En contraste, para diferentes especies y con medios de cultivo sin auxinas, se ha logrado obtener hasta 95% de enraizamiento en C. retusa (Ruvalcaba-Ruíz et al., 2010), Micranthocereus flaviflorus Buining et Brederoo con 98% (Civatti et al., 2017), Mammillaria hernandezii Glass et R. A. Foster con 98.4% de enraizamiento y Mammillaria dixanthocentron Beckeb. ex Mottram con 94% (Lázaro-Castellanos et al., 2018) comparados con los reportados en la presente investigación para K. grusonii.
El uso de AIA 2.0 mg/l es la mejor opción para obtener el mayor número y longitud de raíces en K. grusonii. Resultados similares han sido reportados para H. monacanthus, donde el número de raíces obtenidas en los brotes presentó un promedio de 4.2 por planta, aunque la longitud de la raíz fue aproximadamente 6 veces menor a la de K. grusonii con 3.6 mm (Montiel-Frausto et al., 2016). También Turbinicarpus × mombergeri Říha presentó raíces de menor longitud que las de K. grusonii con 13 mm (Santos-Díaz et al., 2021). En cuanto al porcentaje de sobrevivencia de las plantas aclimatizadas, es importante resaltar que es necesario implementar métodos más eficientes para lograr aumentar el porcentaje de sobrevivencia de las plantas. Ejemplo de ello fue el trabajo realizado por Santos-Díaz et al. (2021), en donde la sobrevivencia de plantas de Turbinicarpus × mombergeri fue de 85% después de 1 año. Otro ejemplo sobresaliente fue lo mostrado por Cortés-Olmos et al. (2023), al reportar 100% de sobrevivencia en plantas de Gymnocalycium cv Fancy. De acuerdo con los resultados obtenidos y con base en literatura consultada, se infiere que las respuestas entre especies pueden llegar a ser muy diferentes, por lo cual se confirma que es necesario establecer protocolos específicos para cada especie y poder aprovechar al máximo el potencial regenerativo de cada una.
Se ha establecido un protocolo de la propagación clonal de Kroenleinia grusonii que inicia con la inducción de brotes, posteriormente el enraizamiento y finaliza con la aclimatización ex vitro. Con los resultados obtenidos en K. grusonii se logró la formación de hasta 5 brotes más con el uso de BAP 3.0 mg/l. Al inducir la formación de raíces en los brotes regenerados, es viable obtener aproximadamente 3 plantas nuevas por cada explante utilizado en la fase de inducción de brotes. Esta información representa un avance para continuar implementando técnicas de propagación in vitro en K. grusonii y que en futuras investigaciones se pueda promover un mayor número de plantas. Los resultados de este estudio, podrían contribuir a los programas de conservación ex situ e in situ de K. grusonii.
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Illustrated keys for the identification of species and tribes of Scolytinae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) from Tucumán Province, Argentina
Silvia Patricia Córdoba a, * y Thomas H. Atkinson b
a Fundación Miguel Lillo, Instituto de Entomología, Área de Zoología, Miguel Lillo 251, 4000 San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina
b University of Texas at Austin, University Texas Insect Collection, Lake Austin Center 3001 Lake Austin Boulevard, Suite 1.314, Austin, 78703 Texas, EUA
*Autor para correspondencia: spcordoba@lillo.org.ar (S.P. Córdoba)
Recibido: 08 abril 2025; aceptado: 25 septiembre 2025
Resumen
La subfamilia Scolytinae es reconocida por comprender especies de importancia forestal, frutícola y ornamental debido a su impacto económico y por poseer la función, desde el punto de vista ecológico, de regular las poblaciones vegetales con las que se asocian. Para la Argentina, no existen claves para la determinación de las tribus y especies, por lo que en el presente trabajo se incluye una para la identificación de las tribus y 12 claves para la identificación de 56 especies, como así también su distribución en América del Sur y Argentina. También se añaden fotografías del aspecto general y caracteres más importantes de cada especie.
Palabras clave: Escarabajos descortezadores; Escarabajos de ambrosía; América del Sur; Tucumán; Distribución; Forestal
Abstract
The subfamily Scolytinae is recognized for comprising species of forestal, fruit, and ornamental importance due to their economic impact and their ecological role in regulating the plant populations with which they are associated. For Argentina, there are no keys for identifying the tribes and species; therefore, this work includes a key for identifying the tribes and 12 keys for identifying 56 species, as well as their distribution in South America and Argentina. Photographs of the general appearance and most important characteristics of each species are also included.
Keywords: Bark beetles; Ambrosia beetles; South America; Tucumán; Distribution; Forestry
Introducción
La subfamilia Scolytinae constituye un grupo grande y diverso de escarabajos barrenadores (Atkinson, 2017). Presentan una amplia gama de modos de alimentación, pero se dividen principalmente en 2 grupos: los escarabajos descortezadores y los de ambrosía. Los primeros se alimentan del floema de árboles enfermos o moribundos y por su actividad, la corteza termina por desprenderse. Los escarabajos de ambrosía perforan el xilema de árboles debilitados, moribundos o enfermos y cultivan hongos simbiontes, los cuales constituyen su alimento (Kirkendall et al., 2015). La subfamilia es reconocida por comprender especies de importancia económica y por poseer la función, desde el punto de vista ecológico, de regular las poblaciones vegetales con las que se asocian (Pérez-De La Cruz et al., 2016). Además, los escarabajos descortezadores son importantes, ya que fomentan la sucesión, lo que conlleva a mantener la salud forestal en muchos ecosistemas del mundo (Morris et al., 2018). Aunque la mayoría se encuentra en árboles moribundos, debilitados, enfermos o trocería recién cortada, algunas especies pueden constituir verdaderas plagas al invadir árboles sanos o sin evidencia de debilitamiento (Lombardero, 1995; Pérez-Silva et al., 2021). Su peligrosidad radica, además, en que algunas especies son vectores de hongos fitopatógenos, los cuales pueden ocasionar la muerte de la planta o producir daños que alteren la calidad de la madera provocando pérdidas económicas importantes (Lombardero, 1995). Además, por la naturaleza críptica de las galerías, son difíciles de detectar y esto conlleva a que muchas especies se hayan establecido en otras áreas fuera de su rango de distribución, estableciéndose como especies invasoras, planteando graves amenazas a los bosques, productos forestales y cultivos (Kirkendall, 2018).
Hasta el año 2018 en Argentina y, particularmente en la provincia de Tucumán, gran parte de los estudios sobre Scolytinae corresponden a trabajos dispersos en la literatura (Bruch, 1914; Bosq, 1943; Hayward, 1960; Santoro, 1966; Viana, 1964; Wood, 2007). Hasta la fecha se han descrito unas 6,400 especies en todo el mundo (Hulcr et al., 2015; Wood y Bright, 1992). Para Argentina, Atkinson (2025) lista 17 tribus, 52 géneros y 199 especies, de las cuales 18 son introducidas en el país desde otros continentes. Para la provincia de Tucumán, se han reportado 56 especies distribuidas en 12 tribus y 26 géneros (Córdoba et al., 2025).
Hasta el momento, no se han desarrollado claves para la identificación de tribus y especies en Argentina, lo cual limita la capacidad de diagnóstico y manejo de estos insectos. El presente trabajo constituye la primera iniciativa dirigida a la elaboración de claves ilustradas con figuras, que permitan la determinación precisa de las tribus y especies presentes en el país. Estas herramientas son esenciales, ya que algunas especies tienen un impacto significativo en cultivos forestales, ornamentales y frutales, que afectan tanto la economía nacional como la biodiversidad regional. En un contexto de cambio climático y globalización, la identificación temprana y precisa de estas especies resulta esencial para prevenir posibles brotes. La ausencia de herramientas específicas adaptadas a las condiciones locales hace que este trabajo sea aún más relevante al proporcionar un recurso indispensable para investigadores, técnicos y productores.
Materiales y métodos
Gran parte del material estudiado fue obtenido de recolectas directas e indirectas, realizadas desde el 2016 al 2024, en la provincia de Tucumán, noroeste de Argentina. Las recolectas indirectas se realizaron utilizando trampas elaboradas con botellas plásticas y con etanol 96% como atrayente. Los ejemplares fueron separados y determinados siguiendo las claves de Wood (2007), así como por comparación con los ejemplares de distintas colecciones y la revisión por parte del segundo autor de los especímenes del Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History (USNM), Washington, DC (EE.UU.) y el Naturhistorisches Museum Wien (NHMW), Viena, Austria.
La elaboración de las claves se realizó con base en las descripciones de Wood (2007) y en la revisión de los ejemplares de las colecciones de la Fundación Miguel Lillo (I-FML), Museo de La Plata (MLP) y Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales Bernardino Rivadavia (MACN). En las claves fueron incluidos mayormente caracteres de las hembras, sin embargo, en algunos casos se analizaron los caracteres del macho, por lo que se aclara con (Macho), al inicio de cada llave. Las especies marcadas con un asterisco (*) son especies exóticas. La distribución de las especies en el país se realizó con base en la información obtenida de las colecciones revisadas, la literatura existente, datos de las recolectas y en la información presente en el sitio web Bark and Ambrosia Beetles of the Americas (Atkinson, 2025). Las claves incluyen especies que se distribuyen en otras provincias de Argentina, por lo que pueden ser utilizadas en otras regiones del país.
Las fotografías fueron tomadas con una cámara Leica DMC 2900 incorporada a un microscopio estereoscópico Leica M205 C, para cada foto se tomó una serie de capas a través del Software Leica Application Suite Core versión 4.7.1.
Resultados
Se identificaron 56 especies pertenecientes a 25 géneros y 12 tribus: Bothrosternini, Corthylini, Dryocoetini, Hexacolini, Hylurgini, Ipini, Micracidini, Phloeosinini, Phloeotribini, Scolytini, Trypophloeini y Xyleborini. La tribu más diversa fue Xileborini, con 14 especies, seguida de Bothrosternini, con 12 especies.
Los géneros históricamente incluidos dentro de Cryphalini fueron agrupados de acuerdo con la propuesta de Johnson et al. (2020), Hypothenemus Westwood, 1836 se incluye dentro de la tribu Trypophloeini, y Acorthylus y Cryptocarenus se incluyen dentro de la tribu Corthylini (subtribu Pityophthorina). Además, se incluyen tanto a Xyleborus bispinatus Eichhoff, 1868 como a X. ferrugineus (Fabricius, 1801) como 2 especies distintas de acuerdo con Kirkendall y Jordal (2006). Theoborus theobromae (Hopkins,1915) se trata como Coptoborus villosulus (Blandford, 1898), de acuerdo con Smith y Cognato (2021).
La clave para tribus es una clave simplificada que no se puede utilizar fuera del área de estudio, en gran parte porque omite grupos no presentes en el noroeste de Argentina. Las claves para tribus y géneros de Wood (1982, 2007) no permiten ubicar todos los géneros en tribus con certeza. En particular, los géneros Acorthylus y Cryptocarenus fueron tratados por Wood (1982, 2007) en su tribu Cryphalini, pero autores más recientes como Johnson et al. (2020) los han incluido en la tribu Corthylini (subtribu Pityophthorina). En esta clave se identifican por separado.
Clave de las tribus de Scolytinae presentes en Tucumán
1. Cabeza parcialmente cubierta por el pronoto; pronoto en vista lateral con curvatura gradual desde la base hasta el ápice (fig. 1a-d) 2
1’. Cabeza completamente cubierta por el borde anterior del pronoto (mejor visto en aspecto lateral); pronoto en vista lateral generalmente con un cambio abrupto en armadura o contextura (fig. 1e- h) 7
2. Protibia sin dentículos laterales, con gancho apical en borde exterior (fig. 2a) Scolytini
2’. Protibia con dentículos laterales, proyecciones apicales pueden estar presentes en borde interior (fig. 2b-d) 3
3. Protibia con 1 proyección subapical en borde exterior, consistiendo en 2 dentículos prominentes (fig. 2b) Bothrosternini
3’. Protibia sin proyección subapical en borde exterior (fig. 2c, d) 4
4. Maza antenal con segmentos, independientemente móviles (fig. 1c, d) Phloeotribini
4’. Maza antenal con segmentos fusionados o sin segmentación (fig. 2f-n) 5
5. Funículo se une a la maza antenal en el centro de la base del mismo (fig. 2f) Hylurgini
5’. Funículo se une a la maza antenal lateralmente (fig. 2g, h) Phloeosinini
6. Perfil lateral del pronoto curvado, cima poco desarrollada (fig. 1e, f) 7
6’. Perfil lateral del pronoto con cima pronunciada y abrupta (fig. 1g, h) 8
7. Protibia con 2 dentículos prominentes ubicados en el ápice (fig. 2e); funículo antenal con 7 segmentos Hexacolini
7’. Protibia con dentículos abundantes, similares en tamaño (fig. 2a, b), funículo antenal con 5 segmentos Dryocoetini
8. Parte terminal del dorso del último segmento abdominal parcialmente visible en vista ventral (abdomen parece tener 6 segmentos en vista ventral) (fig. 1j) Corthylini (Corthylini, Pityophthorini en parte)
8’. Parte terminal del dorso del último segmento abdominal parcialmente no visible en vista ventral (abdomen parece tener 5 segmentos en vista ventral) (fig. 1i) 9
9. Zona posterior de la cavidad oral deprimida debajo del nivel de la cabeza en vista ventral (fig. 1k) Xyleborini
9’. Zona posterior de la cavidad oral no deprimidas (fig. 1l) 10
10. Suturas de maza antenal similares en caras anterior y posterior (fig. 2k, l) 11
10’. Suturas de maza antenal conspicuamente desplazadas en cara posterior (oblicuamente truncada) (fig. 2m, n) 13
11. Segundo segmento del flagelo antenal tan largo como segmentos 3 y 5 juntos (fig. 2i) Acorthylus (Corthylini: Pityopthorina
11’. Segundo segmento del flagelo antenal igual de largo como segmentos 3 y 5 12
12’. Vestidura de las interestrías del disco elitral escasa o ausente, setas en forma de cuchara (fig. 2o) Cryptocarenus (Corthylini: Pityopthorina)
12’. Vestidura de las interestrías abundante desde la base del disco hasta el ápice del declive; setas en forma de cinta, truncadas en su ápice (fig. 2p) Trypophloeini
13. Funículo antenal con 6 segmentos (fig. 2j) Micracidini
13’. Funículo antenal con 5 segmentos Ipini
Tribu Bothrosternini Blandford, 1896
Presentan dimorfismo sexual en la frente, los ojos son enteros, el funículo antenal lleva 6 segmentos, la maza antenal es moderadamente aplanada y con suturas bien marcadas, las procoxas están moderadamente o ampliamente separadas, el pronoto carece de armaduras o lleva pocas ornamentaciones, las protibias presentan un proceso bífido en el ángulo apical externo que excede el ángulo apical interno, la base de los márgenes de los élitros generalmente llevan una fila de crenulaciones poco desarrolladas, representada en algunas especies, por una costa continua. Son monógamos, con excepción del género Bothrosternus, donde ocurre algún tipo de partenogénesis. La mayoría de las especies son barrenadoras de la médula de ramas pequeñas, con excepción de Pagiocerus que barrena semillas y Bothrosternus que también barrena ramitas, pero aparentemente es xylomicetófago. Esta tribu se restringe a zonas tropicales de América, solo una especie se extiende hasta el sureste de EUA (Wood, 2007).
Clave de las especies de la tribu Bothrosternini
1. Cuerpo alargado y delgado (fig. 3a, c); vestidura que incluye setas o escamas; suturas de la maza antenal rectas y transversales (fig. 3e); ancho del rostro mayor que distancia entre los ojos; pronoto longitudinalmente estriado y con puntos; principalmente barrenadores de ramas y tallos delgados 2
1’. Cuerpo ovalado y robusto (fig. 3b, d); vestidura compuesta de setas; suturas de maza antenal fuertemente procurvadas (fig. 3f); ancho del ápice del rostro igual a distancia entre los ojos; pronoto con puntuación bien marcada; barrenadores de semillas Pagiocerus frontalis (Fabricius)
2. Presencia de crenulaciones en las zonas anterolaterales del pronoto; pronoto casi tan ancho como largo; ancho del ápice del epistoma mayor que distancia entre los ojos 3
2’. Superficie de pronoto lisa; pronoto más largo que ancho (fig. 4b); ancho del ápice del epistoma igual a distancia entre ojos Cnesinus dividuus Schedl
3. Vestidura compuesta por escamas y setas grisáceas (fig. 4a, c); lados del pronoto paralelos (fig. 5a); frente con abundante pubescencia, compuesta de setas blanquecinas, apretadas contra el fondo y dirigidas hacia el centro (fig. 4e) Cnesinus squamifer Wood
3’. Vestidura compuesta de setas amarillentas (fig. 4b, d); lados del pronoto convexos (fig. 4b); frente con escasa pubescencia, setas amarillentas, semierectas y dirigidas hacia el centro (fig. 4f) Cnesinus hispidus Eggers
Distribución. Argentina: S/D, Tucumán; América del Sur: Bolivia, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana Francesa, Paraguay, Perú, Trinidad y Tobago y Venezuela (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba y Atkinson, 2018; Córdoba et al., 2021, 2023, 2025; Smith et al., 2017; Wood, 2007).
Comentarios. Costilla y Coronel (1994) citan a esta especie como Pagiocerus fiorii Eggers sin especificar ninguna ubicación. Está extensamente distribuida en regiones tropicales de América.
Cnesinus dividuus Schedl, 1938 (fig. 3a, c, e)
Distribución. Argentina: Buenos Aires, Tucumán; América del Sur: Brasil (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2025; Wood, 2007).
Distribución. Argentina: Tucumán; América del Sur: Bolivia y Brasil (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2021, 2023, 2025; Wood, 2007).
Tribu Corthylini LeConte, 1876
Por lo general machos y hembras similares en tamaño. Presentan un surco en el extremo anterior del metapisternon que conforma un mecanismo de bloqueo que mantiene los élitros en su lugar cuando están en reposo. La maza antenal es aplanada, con las suturas similares en ambos lados de la misma y los de la cara posterior no están fuertemente desplazados hacia el ápice. Las tibias son delgadas y llevan pocos dentículos en el margen lateral. Esta tribu se divide en 2 subtribus: Corthylina y Pityophthorina (Wood, 2007).
Figura 1. a, Vista lateral de cabeza y pronoto de Scolytopsis toba;b, vista dorsal de cabeza y pronoto de S. toba; c, vista lateral de cabeza y pronoto de Phloeotribus harringtoni; d, vista dorsal de cabeza y pronoto de P. harringtoni; e, vista lateral de cabeza y pronoto de Scolytodes tucumani; f, vista dorsal de cabeza y pronoto de S. tucumani; g, vista lateral de cabeza y pronoto de Orthotomicus laricis; h, vista dorsal de cabeza y pronoto de O. laricis; i, vista ventral del abdomen de Xyleborus volvulus; j, vista ventral del abdomen de Araptus sp.; k, vista ventral de partes bucales de Xylosandrus crassiusculus; l, vista ventral de partes bucales de Araptus pubescens. Figura 2. a, Protibia de Scolytopsis puncticollis; b, protibia de Pagiocerus frontalis; c, protibia de Coccotrypes carpophagus; d, protibia de Orthotomicus laricis; e, protibia de Scolytodes tucumani; f, antena de Xylechinus imperialis; g, antena de Chramesus argentiniae; h, antena de Pseudochramesus acuteclavatus; i, antena de Acorthylus bosqui; j, antena de Hylocurus giganteus; k, vista de cara anterior de la antena de Gnathotrichus sulcatus; l, vista de cara posterior de la antena de G. sulcatus; m, vista de cara anterior de la antena de Xyleborus volvulus; n, vista de cara posterior de la antena de X. volvulus; o, disco y declive elitral de Cryptocarenus seriatus; p: disco y declive elitral de Hypothenemus crudiae. Figura 3. a: Vista dorsal de Cnesinus dividuus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de Pagiocerus frontalis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista lateral de C. dividuus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de P. frontalis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, antena de C. dividuus;f, antena de P. frontalis. Figura 4. a, Vista dorsal de Cnesinus squamifer (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de C. hispidus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista lateral de C. squamifer (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de C. hispidus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, vista frontal de C. squamifer (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); f, vista frontal de C. hispidus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025).
Subtribu Corthylina LeConte, 1876
Funículo antenal con 1-5 segmentos, maza grande y generalmente asimétrica; pieza intercoxal prosternal ausente, pubescencia comúnmente muy reducida, es insignificante muy confusa (no ordenada en filas); el declive elitral es convexo o truncado a profundamente excavado, generalmente con procesos similares a espinas. La mayoría de las especies perforan los tejidos del xilema del huésped e inoculan esporas de sus hongos simbióticos en las paredes del túnel, luego se alimentan principalmente de las esporas del hongo y el micelio (Wood, 2007).
Clave de las especies de la subtribu Corthylina
1. Funículo antenal de 2 segmentos; masa antenal truncada apicalmente, ovalada o redonda 2
1’. Funículo antenal de 1 segmento; masa antenal ovalada o redonda 3
2. Cuerpo castaño con 3 manchas más claras y rojizas en base del pronoto y 2 manchas alargadas longitudinales amarillentas en élitros, van desde la base hasta antes del declive elitral (fig. 5a, c); pronoto 1.5 veces más largo que ancho, borde anterior del pronoto armado con dientes; declive elitral amplio, moderadamente cóncavo, espina 1 en interestría 1 diminuta y puntiaguda, 2 en interestría 2, ligeramente más grandes que 1, espina 3 diminuta, espina 4 ligeramente más grandes que 2, puntiagudas (fig. 5e Monarthrum chapuisi Kirsch
2’. Cuerpo castaño rojizo muy oscuro y homogéneo (fig. 5b, d); pronoto 1.3 veces más largo que ancho, borde anterior del pronoto liso (sin dientes); declive elitral empinado, reticulado, estrecho y suavemente impreso, con espinas 2 y 3 diminutas (fig. 5f Monarthrum subimpressum Wood
3. Maza antenal 1.5 veces más larga que ancha, con sutura visible y cirro delgado (fig. 6e); frente fuertemente cóncava, mitad inferior amarillenta y esponjosa, sin setas (fig. 6g); margen anterior del pronoto débilmente aserrado; declive elitral muy empinado, redondeado y convexo, con setas erectas largas difusas (fig. 6c) Corthylus alineus Schedl
3’. Maza antenal 1.3 veces más larga que ancha, con 3 suturas visibles y cirro muy largo (fig. 6f); frente moderadamente cóncava, con áreas laterales a ambos lados de la frente, amarillas y esponjosas, con setas largas y erectas a ambos lados del área esponjosa (fig. 6h); borde apical de la frente con fila de setas plumosas orientadas hacia el centro de la frente; margen anterior del pronoto con espinas; declive elitral muy empinado (casi truncado) débilmente convexo, con cresta costal elevada no cerrada, con escasas setas largas y erectas (fig. 6d) Corthylus serrulatus Eggers
Monarthrum chapuisi Kirsch, 1866 (fig. 3a, c, e)
Distribución. Argentina: Tucumán; América del Sur: Bolivia, Colombia, Perú y Venezuela (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Smith et al., 2017; Wood, 2007).
Distribución. Argentina: Salta y Tucumán; América del Sur: Colombia, Ecuador y Perú (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba y Atkinson, 2018; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Smith et al., 2017; Wood, 2007).
Distribución. Argentina: Jujuy, Salta y Tucumán; América del Sur: Bolivia, Brasil y Perú (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2018, 2021, 2023, 2025; Smith et al., 2017; Wood, 2007).
Subtribu Pityophthorina Eichhoff, 1878
Se caracteriza por presentar el funículo antenal mayormente de 5 segmentos, maza antenal más pequeña y simétrica; pieza intercoxal prosternal agudamente puntiaguda; pubescencia abundante, generalmente en filas en los élitros; declive elitral comúnmente convexo a bisulcado, armadura ausente. Se alimentan directamente del tejido de la planta huésped y son floeófagas, mielófagas o espermófagas. No hay especies verdaderamente xilófagas (Wood, 2007).
Clave de las especies de la subtribu Pityophthorina
1. Revestimiento del cuerpo formado por escamas (fig. 7a, b); flagelo antenal con 2 segmentos; maza antenal alargada y subrectangular (fig. 7c); pronoto con 8 filas transversales de espinas romas; ramillete de setas largas en cara interna de protibias, que van desde la base hasta el ápice de las mismas (fig. 7e); menos de 2 mm de longitud del cuerpo Acorthylus bosqui (Schedl)
1’. Revestimiento del cuerpo formado por setas; flagelo antenal con 4 segmentos; maza antenal redondeada y aplanada (fig. 7d); pronoto con espinas romas o sin espinas; tibias anteriores con pubescencia abundante (fig. 7f); más de 2 mm de longitud del cuerpo 2
2. Pronoto con rugosidades pronunciadas en la parte anterior; pronoto en vista lateral, convexo hasta el disco, luego con una elevación pronunciada en medio, más bajo y recto hasta la base; maza antenal con 2 suturas parcial o totalmente septadas 3
2’. Pronoto sin rugosidades pronunciadas en la parte anterior; pronoto en vista lateral con curvatura uniforme desde el ápice hasta la base, sin elevación pronunciada; maza antenal con 1 sutura total o parcialmente septada 5
3. Declive elitral con sulcos, interestría 1 moderadamente elevada, armada por 10 o más tubérculos; pubescencia de los élitros confinada al declive (fig. 9e) Pityophthorus tucumanensis Wood
3’. Declive elitral completamente convexo, sin sulcos, interestría 1 sin tubérculos 4
4. Longitud del cuerpo 1.4 a 1.8 mm; frente con fuerte impresión transversal y con pequeño tubérculo medio a nivel de los ojos (fig. 8e); color del cuerpo castaño oscuro (fig. 8a, c) Cryptocarenus heveae (Hagedorn)
4’. Longitud del cuerpo 1.4 a 1.5 mm; frente cóncava (fig. 8f); coloración del cuerpo castaño rojizo o claro (fig. 8b, d) Cryptocarenus seriatus Eggers
5. Pronoto de lados paralelos; élitros 2 veces más largos que el pronoto (fig. 9b, d) Araptus araujiae (Brèthes)
5’. Pronoto de lados convexos; élitros entre 1.6 y 1.7 más largos que el pronoto 6
6. Frente con quilla media aguda, más fuertemente elevada en mitad media superior (fig. 10g); maza antenal redondeada; pubescencia del cuerpo abundante (fig. 10a,d) Araptus pubescens (Schedl)
6’. Frente sin quilla; maza antenal ovalada; pubescencia no muy abundante 7
7. Frente muy débilmente convexa, con pubescencia corta y escasa (fig. 10h); declive elitral convexo y bisulcado (fig. 10j) Araptus frenatus (Schedl)
7’. Frente claramente convexa, con pubescencia larga abundante y erecta; con tubérculo en el ápice de la frente, poco marcado que se afina hasta la base (fig. 10i); declive elitral convexo con surco poco profundo en las interestrías 1 y 2 (fig. 10k) Araptus volastos (Schedl)
Figura 5. a, Vista dorsal de Monarthrum chapuisi (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de M. subimpresum (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista lateral de M. chapuisi (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de M. subimpresum (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, vista posterior de M. chapuisi; f, vista posterior de M. subimpresum (tomada de Atkinson, 2025). Figura 6. a, Vista dorsal de Corthylus alineus;b, vista dorsal de C. serrulatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista lateral de C. alineus; d, vista lateral de C. serrulatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, antena de C. alineus; f, antena de C. serrulatus; g, vista frontal de C. alineus; h, vista frontal de C. serrulatus.
Distribución. Argentina: Buenos Aires, Misiones, Santiago del Estero y Tucumán; América del Sur: Brasil, Colombia Perú, Trinidad y Tobago y Venezuela (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2021, 2023, 2025; Iturre y Darchuck, 1996; Smith et al., 2017; Wood, 2007).
Distribución. Argentina: Tucumán; América del Sur: Bolivia, Brasil, Colombia, Guyana Francesa, Paraguay, Perú y Venezuela (Atkinson 2025; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Smith et al., 2017; Wood, 2007).
Distribución. Argentina: Buenos Aires y Tucumán (Atkinson, 2025; Bachmann y Lanteri, 2013; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Wood y Bright, 1992).
Araptus pubescens (Schedl, 1950) (fig. 10a, d, g)
Distribución. Argentina: Córdoba y Tucumán (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2025; Wood, 2007).
Araptus frenatus (Schedl, 1939) (fig. 10b, e, h, j)
Distribución. Argentina: Córdoba y Tucumán (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2025; Wood, 2007).
Araptus volastos (Schedl, 1938) (fig. 10c, f, i, k)
Distribución. Argentina: Jujuy, Salta y Tucumán; América del Sur: Bolivia (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2025; Wood, 2007).
Tribu Dryocoetini Lindemann, 1877
Figura 7. a, Vista dorsal de Acorthylus bosqui (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista lateral de A. bosqui (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, antena de A. bosqui; d, antena de Cryptocarenus heveae; e, tibia de A. bosqui; f, tibia de C. heveae (tomada de Atkinson, 2025). Figura 8. a, Vista dorsal de Cryptocarenus heveae (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de C. seriatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista lateral de C. heveae (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de C. seriatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, vista frontal de C. heveae (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); f, vista frontal de C. seriatus
Presentan dimorfismo sexual en la frente. En los machos es convexa a variadamente impresa y en las hembras es convexa a aplanada o con elevaciones; el ojo está emarginado o dividido; el escapo antenal es alargado, el funículo está compuesto de 4 a 6 segmentos, la maza antenal puede estar oblicuamente truncada o conspicuamente aplanada, en este último caso las suturas son procurvadas u obsoletas; el pronoto puede estar o no armado con asperezas; las procoxas pueden ser contiguas o estar muy poco separadas; margen lateral de las protibias con 3 o más dentículos alveolares; el declive elitral puede ser convexo, sulcado, aplanado y, a veces, con pequeños gránulos; la pubescencia está compuesta por setas; la mayoría de las especies son polígamas y algunas son haploides; hay especies espermatófagas, mielófagas y floeófagas. De los 17 géneros que se conocen en el mundo, solo 4 se encuentran en América del Sur, pero 2 de ellos son introducidos (Wood, 2007). Las especies del género Coccotrypes presentes en la región son barrenadores de semillas de palmeras.
Clave de las especies de la tribu Dryocoetini
1. Tamaño del cuerpo entre 1.8 a 2.3 mm; pubescencia moderadamente abundante (fig. 11a, c); pronoto de lados marcadamente convexos que se angosta de manera abrupta hacia el ápice, con asperezas pequeñas y abundantes (fig. 11a) Coccotrypes dactyliperda (Fabricius)
1’. Tamaño del cuerpo entre 1.5 y 1.9 mm; pubescencia muy abundante (fig. 11b, d); pronoto redondeado, angostado en el ápice, con asperezas gruesas y marcadas (fig. 11b) Coccotrypes carpophagus (Hornung)
Coccotrypes dactyliperda (Fabricius, 1801)* (fig. 11a, c)
Distribución. S/D, Tucumán (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Wood y Bright, 1992).
Distribución. Tucumán (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025).
Tribu Hexacolini Eichhoff, 1878
Sus miembros presentan dimorfismo sexual: los machos pueden presentar una impresión en la frente, a veces oscura; los machos son convexos y las hembras son esculpidas y ornamentadas de forma variada; los ojos son en general alargados, con su margen anterior entero o sinuoso; el escapo antenal es alargado; el funículo lleva 5 o 6 segmentos (con 7 segmentos en Gymnochilus); la maza antenal puede o no llevar suturas; la zona apical del pronoto puede estar ornamentada o no; las procoxas están ampliamente separadas; las protibias llevan, en el margen lateral, 1 o más dentículos alveolares generalmente incrustados en la cutícula (Wood, 2007).
Clave de las especies de la tribu Hexacolini
1. Color castaño amarillento, con franja más oscura en mitad apical del pronoto (fig. 12a, c); frente con callo transversal por debajo del nivel superior de ojos (fig. 12e); pronoto con superficie reticulada; élitros de lados convexos (fig. 12a); declive elitral ampliamente convexo (fig.12c) Scolytodes sparsepilosus Wood
1’. Color castaño amarillento, con mitad apical más oscura (fig. 12b, d); frente con callo medio estrecho que se extiende dorsalmente desde elevación epistomal hasta ligeramente por encima del nivel de inserción de antena (fig. 12f); pronoto liso y brillante; élitros de lados paralelos (fig. 12b); declive estrechamente convexo (fig. 12d) Scolytodes tucumani Wood
Distribución. Argentina: Tucumán; América del Sur: Ecuador (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Jordal y Smith, 2020; Wood, 2007).
Tribu Hylurgini Gistel, 1848
Presentan dimorfismo sexual en la frente, siendo convexa en las hembras e impresa en los machos; los ojos son enteros y ovalados; las antenas presentan un escapo alargado, el funículo con 5 a 7 segmentos y la maza antenal es simétrica, aplanada y generalmente con 3 o 4 suturas; el pronoto es generalmente liso; las procoxas son contiguas o están muy poco separadas; las tibias están armadas por dientes en los márgenes laterales y apicales; todas las especies de esta tribu son monógamas y fleófagas (Wood, 2007).
Figura 9. a, Vista dorsal de Pityophthorus tucumanensis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de Araptus araujiae; c, vista lateral de P. tucumanensis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de A. araujiae; e, vista posterior de P. tucumanensis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025).
Clave de las especies de la tribu Hylurgini
Longitud 2.1-2.6 mm; color castaño oscuro, con pubescencia formada por setas y escamas con patrón de coloración mezclada (fig. 13a, b); frente convexa, reticulada y rugosa por encima de los ojos y lisa y brillante por debajo de ellos (fig. 13c); pronoto 0.85 veces más largo que ancho, base más ancha que el ápice, lados convexos, con superficie reticulada (fig. 13a); interestrías de élitros armadas por tubérculos; en macho las interestrías 3 y base de la 1 elevadas y armadas por dentículos en declive elitral Xylechinus imperialis (Schedl)
Xylechinus imperialis (Schedl, 1958) (fig. 13a-c)
Distribución. Argentina: Buenos Aires, Jujuy, Salta, Santa Fe y Tucumán (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Wood, 2007).
Tribu Ipini Bedel, 1888
Se distinguen por presentar dimorfismo sexual en la frente, siendo convexa en los machos y de forma variada en las hembras; la antena presenta un escapo afinado y alargado, el funículo antenal está formado por 5 segmentos y la maza puede ser oblicuamente truncada o aplanada, con suturas desplazadas hacia el ápice de la cara posterior; mitad anterior del ápice del pronoto es declivado y áspero; las procoxas son contiguas; protibias presentan 3 o 4 dientes; el declive elitral es sulcado o profundamente excavado, puede estar armado con espinas o tubérculos; el cuerpo presenta una pubescencia similar a setas. Todas las especies de esta tribu son floeófagas y monógamas o polígamas (Wood, 2007).
Figura 10. a, Vista dorsal de Araptus pubescens (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de A. frenatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista dorsal de A. volastos (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de A. pubescens (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, vista lateral de A. frenatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); f: vista lateral de A. volastos (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); g: vista frontal de A.pubescens; h, vista frontal de A. frenatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); i, vista frontal de A. volastos; j, vista posterior de A. frenatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); k, vista posterior de A. volastos (tomada de Atkinson, 2025).
Figura 11. a, Vista dorsal de Coccotrypes dactyliperda (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de C. carpophagus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista lateral de C. dactyliperda (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de C. carpophagus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025).
Figura 12. a, Vista dorsal de Scolytodes sparsepilosus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de S. tucumani (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista lateral de S. sparsepilosus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de S. tucumani (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, vista frontal de S. sparsepilosus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); f, vista frontal de S. tucumani (tomada de Atkinson, 2025).
Clave de las especies de la tribu Ipini
(Macho) Longitud: 3.0-3.7 mm; 2.7 veces más largo que ancho (fig. 14a, b); frente levemente convexa con abundante pubescencia larga, fina y erecta; pronoto 1,07 veces más largo que ancho, mitad anterior moderadamente declinada y mitad basal levemente cóncava, con pubescencia escasa en el centro y con setas largas y erectas en los bordes y ápice (fig. 14b); declive elitral cóncavo, con 3 espinas en bordes externos, 1 espina en interestría 1 y otra en la interestría 2 (fig. 14c) Orthotomicus laricis (Fabricius)
Orthotomicus laricis (Fabricius, 1792)* (fig. 14a, b, c)
Distribución. Argentina: Neuquén y Tucumán; América del Sur: Chile (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2021, 2023, 2025; Kirkendall, 2018; Wood, 2007).
Tribu Micracidini LeConte, 1876
Se distinguen por presentar dimorfismo sexual en la frente, siendo en la hembra generalmente cóncava y en el macho, raramente cóncava; los ojos pueden ser ovalados, alargados, enteros o sinuados; antenas con el escapo corto o alargado, aplanado o expandido, con setas, el funículo presenta 6 segmentos, la maza antenal puede o no tener suturas; el pronoto presenta asperezas en la zona anterior, los lados son redondeados; las procoxas están ligeramente separadas; generalmente presentan setas subplumosas en alguna parte del cuerpo; pueden tener hábitos xilófagos, floeófagos o mielófagos; todos son bígamos excepto el género Micraciella que es monógamo (Wood, 2007).
Clave de las especies de la tribu Micracidini
(Macho) Longitud 3.2 a 3.5 mm; 2.8 veces más largo que ancho; frente convexa con carena transversal (fig. 15c); antena con escapo ligeramente aplanado con mechón de pelos (fig. 15c), sutura procurvada; mitad apical del pronoto con tubérculos que van disminuyendo hacia la mitad, margen apical con 6 dientes; declive elitral convexo con nódulos en las interestrías de la base, interestría 9 con quilla, pubescencia escasa, aumenta en el declive elitral, élitros terminados en punta aguda (fig. 15d) Hylocurus giganteus (Schedl)
Hylocurus giganteus (Schedl, 1950) (fig. 15a-d)
Distribución. Argentina: Salta y Tucumán; América del Sur: Brasil (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Wood, 2007).
Tribu Phloeosinini Nüsslin, 1912
Presentan dimorfismo sexual en la frente, machos con diferentes impresiones y hembras con frente aplanada o convexa; ojos pueden estar emarginados; antenas llevan un funículo con 5-7 segmentos, maza antenal aplanada, pueden ser asimétricas en diferentes medidas, pueden llevar suturas o no; pronoto no tiene asperezas, excepto en Dendrosinus, que presenta asperezas débiles; tercer segmento tarsal comprimido o bilobulado; escutelo puede o no ser visible; pueden ser polígamos o bígamos; pueden ser floeófagos o xilófagos (Wood, 2007).
Clave para las especies de la tribu Phloeosinini
1. Maza antenal fuertememente aplanada, en forma de riñón, la unión con el funículo es en su parte lateral, sin suturas ni fila de setas; escutelo presente pero diminuto; pronoto liso o reticulado 2
1’. Maza antenal con suturas fuertemente procurvadas y claramente marcadas por fila de setas, unión con el funículo excéntrica; escutelo visible; pronoto liso o armado con pequeños gránulos 4
2. Frente del macho con márgenes laterales fuertemente elevados y con cuentas 3
2’. Frente del macho con márgenes laterales agudamente elevados con cresta irregular pero sin cuentas (fig. 16g) Chramesus phloeotriboides Schedl
3. Margen lateral de la frente del macho fuertemente elevado y con cuentas solo en el tercio inferior (fig. 16h); maza antenal 2.6 veces más larga que ancha; pronoto con superficie lisa y brillante, zona basal con algunos tubérculos pequeños y aislados Chramesus argentinae Wood
3’. Margen lateral de la frente del macho agudamente elevado y marcado con 9 cuentas (fig. 16i); maza antenal 2.3 veces más larga que ancha; pronoto con zona basal profundamente punteada Chramesus globosus Hagedorn
4. Frente ampliamente convexa; estrías de los élitros claramente impresas o no impresas con punciones regulares 5
4’. Frente ancha y ligeramente cóncava (fig. 17g); estrías de los élitros impresas con punciones bastantes grandes; interestría 7 elevada en los machos Pseudochramesus costulatus Blackman
5. Interestrías con escamas de fondo castañas oscuras y pálidas, formando un patrón, setas pálidas uniseriadas en interestrías (fig. 17b, e); frente con elevación a nivel de inserción de antenas (fig. 17h) Pseudochramesus acuteclavatus (Hagedorn)
5’. Interestrías con escamas de fondo castañas, a lo largo de la sutura, pálidas (fig. 17c, f); frente sin elevación a nivel de la inserción de las antenas (fig. 17i) Pseudochramesus harringtoni Blackmann
Distribución. Argentina: Buenos Aires, La Rioja, Misiones, Santa Fe y Tucumán; América del Sur: Brasil y Uruguay (Atkinson, 2025; Bachmann y Lanteri, 2013; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Wood, 2007).
Distribución. Argentina: Jujuy y Tucumán; América del Sur: Bolivia (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Wood, 2007).
Pseudochramesus acuteclavatus (Hagedorn, 1909) (fig. 17b, e, h)
Distribución. Argentina: Buenos Aires, Salta y Tucumán; América del Sur: Bolivia, Brasil y Paraguay (Atkinson, 2025; Bachmann y Lanteri, 2013; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Wood, 2007).
Distribución. Argentina: Salta y Tucumán; América del Sur: Bolivia y Brasil (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Wood, 2007).
Tribu Phloeotribini Chapuis, 1869
Presentan dimorfismo sexual en la frente, siendo con impresiones variadas en los machos y planas o convexas en las hembras; los ojos son enteros; antenas con funículo de 5 segmentos, la maza antenal puede ser muy delgada o fuertemente asimétrica, está dividida en 3 segmentos móviles, usualmente sublamelados; las procoxas son contiguas; el pronoto puede llevar o no asperezas, los márgenes laterales son redondeados; son especies monógamas y floeófagas (Wood, 2007).
Figura 13. a, Vista dorsal de Xylechinus imperialis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista lateral de X. imperialis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista frontal de X. imperialis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025). Figura 14. a, Vista dorsal de Orthotomicus laricis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista lateral de O. laricis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista frontal de O. laricis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025). Figura 15. a, Vista dorsal de Hylocurus giganteus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista lateral de H. giganteus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista frontal de H. giganteus; d, vista posterior de H. giganteus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025). Figura 16. a, Vista dorsal de Chramesus phloeotriboides (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de C. argentinae (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista dorsal de C. globosus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de C. phloeotriboides (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, vista lateral de C. argentinae (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); f, vista lateral de C. globosus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); g, vista frontal de C. phloeotriboides (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); h, vista frontal de C. argentinae (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); i, vista frontal de C. globosus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025). Figura 17. a, Vista dorsal de Pseudochramesus costulatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de P. acuteclavatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista dorsal de P. harringtoni (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de P. costulatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, vista lateral de P. acuteclavatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); f, vista lateral de P. harringtoni (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); g, vista frontal de P. costulatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); h, vista frontal de P. acuteclavatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); i, vista frontal de P. harringtoni (tomada de Atkinson, 2025).
Clave para las especies de la tribu Phloeotribini
1. Frente con área cóncava; pronoto con crenulaciones en mitad apical y puntos grandes; élitros con interestrías iguales o más angostas que estrías; declive elitral con espinas 2
1’. Frente con área cóncava y carena epitosmal muy elevada en macho (fig. 18g); pronoto con asperezas en mitad apical y puntos medianos; élitros con interestrías 3 veces más anchas que estrías; declive elitral con tubérculos pequeños (fig. 18j) Phloeotribus subovatus Blandford
2. Escapo antenal con mechón grande de setas largas (fig. 18h); interestrías de igual ancho que estrías; declive elitral con tubérculos espiniformes en interestrías 2-9 (fig. 18k) Phloeotribus asperulus Eggers
2’. Escapo antenal con escasas setas (fig. 18i); interestrías más angostas que las estrías; declive elitral con espinas en las interestrías 1 a la 9 (fig. 18l) Phloeotribus harringtoni Blackman
Distribución. Argentina: Jujuy, Salta y Tucumán; América del Sur: Perú y Venezuela (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2025; Wood, 2007).
Phloeotribus asperulus Eggers, 1943 (fig. 18b, e, h, k)
Distribución. Argentina: Tucumán; América del Sur:
Bolivia y Brasil (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2025; Wood y Bright, 1992).
Phloeotribus harringtoni Blackman, 1943 (fig. 18c, f, i, l)
Distribución. Argentina: Salta y Tucumán (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Wood, 2007).
Tribu Scolytini Latreille, 1804
Figura 18. a, Vista dorsal de Phloeotribus subovatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de P. asperulus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista dorsal de P. harringtoni (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de P. subovatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, vista lateral de P. asperulus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); f, vista lateral de P. harringtoni (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); g, vista frontal de P. subovatus; h, vista frontal de P. asperulus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); i, vista frontal de P. harringtoni (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); j, vista posterior de P. subovatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); k, vista posterior de P. asperulus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); l, vista posterior de P. harringtoni (tomada de Atkinson, 2025).
Protibias y, usualmente, metatibias desarmadas de espinas, solo llevan un único proceso similar a una espina curvado en el ángulo apical lateral; los márgenes laterales del pronoto son subagudos y elevados; antena con funículo de 7 segmentos, maza antenal puede presentar suturas fuertemente procurvadas, parciales u obsoletas; frente en los machos puede llevar impresiones y la de las hembras es convexa; los ojos son ovalados y enteros (Wood, 2007).
Clave para las especies de la tribu Scolytini
1. Macho. Frente ampliamente convexa, con setas finas moderadamente abundantes (fig. 19g); pronoto 1 vez más largo que ancho; estrías e interestrías confusas; abdomen gradualmente ascendente hasta los élitros (fig. 19d) Scolytus rugulosus (Müller)
1’. Macho. Frente oculta por cepillo de setas largas (fig. 19h, i); pronoto tan largo como ancho; abdomen abruptamente flexionado hacia arriba desde el margen posterior del esternito visible 2 (fig. 19e, f) 2
2. Pronoto con puntos pequeños en el disco que aumentan de tamaño hacia las zonas laterales; setas interestriales robustas y 10 veces más largas que anchas Scolytopsis toba Wichmann
2’. Pronoto con puntos medianos en el disco y con zona anterior y laterales reticulada; setas interestriales 4 veces más largas que anchas Scolytopsis punticollis Blandford
Distribución. Buenos Aires, Catamarca, La Rioja, Mendoza y Misiones; América del Sur: Brasil, Chile, Perú y Uruguay (Atkinson, 2025; Smith et al., 2017; Córdoba y Atkinson, 2018; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Wood, 2007).
Comentario. Esta especie es de origen euroasiático, pero se distribuye actualmente en todas las regiones templadas del mundo.
Scolytopsis toba Wichmann, 1914 (fig. 19b, e, h)
Distribución. Argentina: Misiones y Tucumán; América del Sur: Brasil y Paraguay (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2025; Petrov, 2017; Wood, 2007).
Distribución. Argentina: Misiones y Tucumán; América del Sur: Brasil (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Wood, 2007).
Tribu Trypophloeini Nüsslin, 1911
Figura 19. a, Vista dorsal de Scolytus rugulosus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de Scolytopsis toba (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista dorsal de S. punticollis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de S. rugulosus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, vista lateral de S. toba (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); f, vista lateral de S. punticollis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); g, vista frontal de S. rugulosus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); h, vista frontal de S. toba (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); i, vista frontal de S. punticollis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025).
Se diferencian por la presencia del tercer tarso de forma cilíndrica; ojos son emarginados; funículo antenal con 3-5 segmentos y maza puede presentar suturas y un único septo parcial; pubescencia del hipomeron está compuesta de setas simples raramente mezclado con setas bifurcadas; setas de interestrías similares a escamas; macho similar a la hembra, de tamaño más pequeño y no volador en Hypothenemus, generalmente hay dimorfismo sexual en la frente (Johnson et al., 2020).
Figura 20. a, Vista dorsal de Hypothenemus meridensis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de H. eruditus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista lateral de H. meridensis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de H. eruditus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, vista dorsal del pronoto de H. meridensis; f, vista dorsal del pronoto de H. eruditus.
Clave para las especies de la tribu Trypophloeini
1. Margen anterior del pronoto con 2 dientes (fig. 20e); pendiente anterior del pronoto con dientes gruesos elevados Hypothenemus meridensis,Wood
1’. Margen anterior del pronoto con 6 dientes (fig. 20f); pendiente anterior del pronoto con dientes medianos 2
2. Tamaño pequeño, 1.0- 1.3 mm; frente con superficie rugosa y reticulada; élitros con interestrías 2 veces más anchas que estrías Hypothenemus eruditus Westwood
2’. Tamaño del cuerpo de 1.4- 1.6 mm; frente rugosa y reticulada, con surco o tubérculo; élitros con estrías tan anchas como interestrías 3
3. Frente con tubérculo pequeño ubicado encima del nivel superior de ojos y surco poco profundo que se extiende desde el tubérculo hasta el epistoma (fig. 21e); declive elitral fuertemente convexo (fig. 21c) Hypothenemus crudiae (Panzer)
3’. Frente con surco poco profundo que llega hasta la tercera parte de distancia del margen del epistoma (fig. 21f); declive elitral convexo (fig. 21d) Hypothenemus seriatus (Eichhoff)
Distribución. Argentina: Buenos Aires, Corrientes, Misiones, Santiago del Estero y Tucumán; América del Sur: Brasil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Trinidad y Tobago y Venezuela (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba y Atkinson, 2018; Córdoba et al., 2021, 2023, 2025; Smith et al., 2017; Wood, 2007).
Distribución. Argentina: Buenos Aires y Tucumán; América del Sur: Bolivia, Brasil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Surinam, Trinidad y Tobago y Venezuela (Atkinson, 2025; Atkinson y Flechtmann, 2021; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Wood, 2007).
Comentarios. Esta especie se distribuye desde Estados Unidos hasta Argentina, también posiblemente introducida en Asia y África.
Distribución. Argentina: Tucumán; América del Sur: Bolivia, Brasil, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Perú y Venezuela (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2021, 2023, 2025; Smith et al., 2017; Wood, 2007).
Tribu Xyleborini LeConte, 1876
Figura 21. a, Vista dorsal de Hypothenemus crudiae (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de H. seriatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista lateral de H. crudiae (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de H. seriatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, vista frontal de H. crudiae (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); f, vista frontal de H. seriatus.
Se caracterizan por presentar dimorfismo sexual marcado, macho generalmente más pequeño que hembra y no volador, ojo reducido en tamaño y haploide, la hembra normal y diploide; frente convexa, sin ornamentaciones; ojos son emarginados o divididos; frecuentemente escapo antenal alargado, funículo lleva 5 segmentos y maza antenal truncada de manera oblicua; parte anterior del pronoto empinada y armada con asperezas; procoxas varían de contiguas a ampliamente separadas; protibias expandidas, arqueadas y armadas con dentículos; escutelo puede ser grande y plano o modificado o ausente; en cuanto a su biología, la xilomicetofagia y la poligamia endogámica son universales en esta tribu (Wood, 2007).
Clave para las especies de la tribu Xyleborini
1. Declive de élitros abruptamente truncados con quilla circundeclivital, cara del declive ligeramente convexa con 3 estrías marcadas (fig. 22a, c, e); élitros tan largos como pronoto; procoxas contiguas (fig. 22g) Amasa parviseta Knížek et Smith
1’. Declive elitral aplanado o convexo, nunca truncado; élitros más largos que pronoto; procoxas contiguas o separadas 2
2. Escutelo en forma de espina y poco visible, dejando base de élitros con sutura hueca y cubierta de setas 3
2’. Escutelo en forma triangular y visible, concavidad sutural completamente llena hasta uperficie anterior de élitros, emarginación sin setas 5
3. Declive elitral convexo, empinado y débilmente impreso (fig. 22d, f); margen anterior del pronoto armado por dientes pequeños; longitud del cuerpo 1.9 a 2.4 mm Xyleborinus saxesenii (Ratzeburg)
3’. Declive elitral empinado e impreso; margen anterior del pronoto débilmente aserrado; longitud del cuerpo 2.0 a 2.6 mm 4
4. Frente reticulada, toscamente punteada (fig. 23e); longitud del cuerpo 2.0 a 2.2 mm y 2.9 más largo que ancho; declive elitral empinado e impreso hasta la sutura 3, con interestrías 1 y 2 impresas sin tubérculos, 3 débilmente elevada con 4 espinas (3 de mayor tamaño), intercaladas con otras más pequeñas, interestría 4 con tubérculos puntiagudos pequeños (fig. 23g) Xyleborinus linearicollis (Schedl)
4’. Frente reticulada con punciones gruesas y profundas (fig. 23f); longitud del cuerpo 2.3 a 2.6 mm y 3.2 veces más largo que ancho; declive elitral corto, muy empinado, fuertemente impreso desde la sutura hasta la interestría 3, interestría 1 con un tubérculo en la base, interestría 3 moderadamente elevada con 3 espinas grandes igualmente espaciadas (fig. 23h) Xyleborinus sentosus (Eichhoff)
5. Procoxas moderada o ampliamente separadas; pieza intercoxal continua, longitudinalmente sin emarginación 6
6. Longitud del cuerpo 1.3 a 1.5 mm; coloración castaño oscura; pronoto más ancho en base, lados bastante convexos que convergen al ápice estrechamente redondeado, con mechón de setas ubicado longitudinalmente en la base del pronoto (fig. 24a, e); declive elitral brillante abruptamente redondeado en la base, con carena subserrada en el margen posterolateral, interestrías 2 y 3 con fila de pequeños tubérculos (fig. 24g) Xylosandrus curtulus (Eichhoff)
6’. Longitud del cuerpo 2.1 a 2.9 mm; coloración castaño rojiza; pronoto más ancho en base, lados poco convexos, con setas largas en los bordes y medianas en toda la superficie (fig. 24b, f); declive elitral opaco, muy convexo, densamente cubierto por pequeños gránulos uniforme e irregularmente distribuidos, con carena irregularmente dentada (fig. 24h) Xylosandrus crassiusculus Motschulsky
7. Tercio apical de cara posterior del maza antenal con 2 suturas, cara anterior con segundo segmento más grande, esclerotizado y levemente curvado (fig. 25e, g); cuerpo pequeño, robusto, convexo; longitud del cuerpo 1.8 a 2.1 mm; margen anterior del pronoto armado con 5 dientes medianos Coptoborus villosulus (Blandford)
7’. Tercio apical de cara posterior de maza antenal con 1 o sin suturas marcadas, cara anterior con segundo segmento, si es visible, no esclerotizado y fuertemente curvado (fig. 25f, h); cuerpo alargado, perfil muy levemente convexo a aplanado; longitud del cuerpo 2.0 a 3.2 mm; margen anterior de pronoto sin dientes 8
8. Pronoto subcuadrado (fig. 25b), margen anterior recto, superficie finamente estriada; longitud 2.2 a 2.5 mm; interestrías del declive elitral con filas de tubérculos de diferente tamaño Euwallacea posticus (Eichhoff)
8’. Pronoto más largo que ancho, margen anterior procurvado, superficie lisa; longitud 2.0 3.2 mm; interestrías del declive elitral con tubérculos o espinas 9
9. Declive elitral aplanado y brilloso 10
9’. Declive elitral convexo y opaco o brilloso 11
10. Especie pequeña, cuerpo delgado, longitud del cuerpo 2.0 a 2.9 (fig. 26a); frente con quilla débil ancha que se extiende en zona media, desde epistoma hasta ojos (fig. 26e); declive elitral suavemente empinado, interestría 3 con tubérculo mediano más cerca del ápice que de base del declive (fig. 24g) Xyleborus ferrugineus (Fabricius)
10’. Especie grande, cuerpo robusto, longitud del cuerpo 2.8 a 3.2 (fig. 24b); frente con quilla confinada a zona superior del epistoma (fig. 26f); declive elitral abrupto y empinado, interestría 3 con tubérculo mediano más cerca de base que del ápice del declive (fig. 26h) Xyleborus bispinatus Eichhoff
11. Frente con gránulos pequeños y dispersos (fig. 27e); declive elitral muy empinado y base abrupta (fig. 27c), interestría 1 con tubérculo grande ubicado sobre base protuberante en el tercio basal (fig. 27a, c, g) Xyleborus biconicus Eggers
11’. Frente reticulada sin gránulos; declive eitral con tubérculos pequeños o medianos en las interestrías (fig. 27h) 12
12. Frente fuertemente reticulada y de superficie opaca (fig. 27f); superficie del declive elitral opaca (fig. 27h) Xyleborus affinis Eichhoff
12’. Frente reticulada y de superficie brillante; superficie del declive elitral brillante (fig. 28g, h) 13
13. Frente toscamente reticulada, con línea media elevada y lisa desde el epistoma hasta el nivel superior de los ojos (fig. 28e); declive elitral con interestría 1 con 3 a 5 tubérculos puntiagudos y de tamaño mediano, interestría 2 con 2 o 3 tubérculos puntiagudos y medianos en el cuarto basal y 1 o 2 medianos cerca del ápice, interestría 3 con 3 tubérculos puntiagudos medianos muy espaciados entre sí en el 3 cuarto basal y 3 o más tubérculos pequeños en el cuarto basal (fig. 28g); margen ventrolateral del declive moderadamente elevado y con crenulaciones; coloración del cuerpo castaño rojizo Xyleborus volvulus (Fabricius)
13’. Frente fuertemente reticulada y sin elevaciones (fig. 28f); declive elitral con interestría 1 débilmente elevada, 2 y 3 con fila de tubérculos pequeños y de igual tamaño; coloración del cuerpo castaño rojizo muy oscuro Xyleborus scaber Schedl
Amasa parviseta Knížek et Smith, 2024* (fig. 22a, c, e, g)
Distribución. Argentina: Tucumán; América del Sur: Brasil y Uruguay (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Flechtmann y Cognato, 2011; Gómez et al., 2017a; Knížek y Smith, 2024; Rainho et al., 2018)
Figura 22. a, Vista dorsal de Amasa parviseta (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de Xyleborinus saxesenii (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista lateral de A. parviseta (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de X. saxesenii (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, vista posterior de A. parviseta (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); f, vista posterior de X. saxesenii (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); g, vista ventral de A. parviseta (tomada de Atkinson, 2025).
Comentarios. Es originaria de Australia y se extendió en asociación con especies introducidas de eucalipto. Se informó en Brasil (2015) (Rainho et al., 2018), Uruguay en 2015 (Gómez et al., 2017a), Chile en 2016 (Kirkendall, 2018) y Argentina en 2018 (Córdoba et al., 2023) como A. truncata y A. nr. truncata.
Distribución. Argentina: Buenos Aires, Salta, Santiago del Estero y Tucumán; América del Sur: Brasil, Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay y Uruguay (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba y Atkinson, 2018; Córdoba et al., 2021, 2023, 2025; Gómez et al., 2017a; Iturre y Darchuck, 1996; Wood, 2007).
Comentarios. Esta es una especie euroasiática y ha sido introducida en todas las regiones templadas y subtropicales del mundo.
Xyleborinus linearicollis (Schedl, 1937) (fig. 23a, c, e, g)
Distribución. Buenos Aires y Tucumán; América del Sur: Brasil (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Wood, 2007).
Distribución. Argentina: Tucumán; América del Sur: Brasil, Paraguay y Perú (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2021, 2023, 2025; Smith et al., 2017; Wood, 2007).
Figura 23. a, Vista dorsal de Xyleborinus linearicollis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de X. sentosus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista lateral de X. linearicollis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de X. sentosus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, vista frontal de X. linearicollis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); f, vista frontal de X. sentosus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); g, vista posterior de X. linearicollis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); h, vista posterior de X. sentosus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025).
Xylosandrus curtulus (Eichhoff, 1869) (fig. 24a, c, e, g)
Distribución. Argentina: Salta y Tucumán; América del Sur: Bolivia, Brasil, Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y Venezuela (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba y Atkinson, 2018; Córdoba et al., 2021, 2023, 2025; Martínez et al., 2019; Smith et al., 2017; Wood, 2007).
Distribución. Argentina: Buenos Aires y Tucumán; América del Sur: Brasil, Guyana Francesa y Uruguay (Atkinson, 2025; Landi et. al., 2017; Córdoba y Atkinson, 2018; Córdoba et al., 2021, 2023, 2025; Martínez et al., 2019).
Comentarios. Probablemente es originaria de Asia tropical y subtropical, pero se ha extendido ampliamente en regiones cálidas y húmedas de todo el mundo.
Coptoborus villosulus (Blandford, 1898) (fig. 25a, c, e, g)
Distribución. Argentina: Tucumán; América del Sur: Bolivia, Brasil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana Francesa, Perú, Trinidad y Tobago y Venezuela (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba y Atkinson, 2018; Córdoba et al., 2021, 2023, 2025; Smith y Cognato, 2021; Wood, 2007).
Distribución. Misiones y Tucumán; América del Sur: Bolivia, Brasil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Perú, Surinam, Trinidad y Tobago y Venezuela (Atkinson, 2018; Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba y Atkinson, 2018; Córdoba et al., 2021, 2023, 2025; Wood, 2007).
Figura 24. a, Vista dorsal de Xylosandrus curtulus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de X. crassiusculus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista lateral de X. curtulus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de X. crassiusculus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, detalle pronoto de X. curtulus; f, detalle pronoto de X. crassiusculus (modificada de Atkinson, 2025); g, vista posterior de X. curtulus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); h, vista posterior de X. crassiusculus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025). Figura 25. a, Vista dorsal de Coptoborus villosulus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de Euwallacea posticus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista lateral de C. villosulus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de E. posticus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, vista posterior de la antena de C. villosulus; f, vista posterior de la antena de E. posticus; g, vista anterior de la antena de C. villosulus; h, vista anterior de la antena de E. posticus. Figura 26. a, Vista dorsal de Xyleborus ferrugineus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de X. bispinatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista lateral de X. ferrugineus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de X. bispinatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, vista frontal de X. ferrugineus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); f, vista frontal de X. bispinatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); g, vista posterior de X. ferrugineus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); h, vista posterior de X. bispinatus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025).
Xyleborus ferrugineus (Fabricius, 1801) (fig. 26a, c, e, g)
Distribución. Argentina: Jujuy, Salta y Tucumán. América del Sur: Bolivia, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana Francesa, Guyana, Paraguay, Perú, Surinam, Trinidad y Tobago, Uruguay y Venezuela (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba y Atkinson, 2018; Córdoba et al., 2021, 2023, 2025; Martínez et al., 2019; Smith et al., 2017; Atkinson, 2025).
Distribución. Argentina: Tucumán; América del Sur: Bolivia, Brasil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana Francesa, Paraguay, Perú, Surinam, Trinidad y Tobago y Venezuela (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2021, 2023, 2025; Martínez et al., 2019; Smith et al., 2017).
Xyleborus biconicus Eggers, 1928 (fig. 27a, c, e, g)
Distribución. Argentina: Formosa y Misiones, Tucumán; América del Sur: Bolivia, Brasil, Guyana Francesa y Paraguay (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025; Wood, 2007).
Distribución. Argentina:Jujuy, Misiones, Salta y Tucumán; América del Sur: Bolivia, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana Francesa, Guyana, Paraguay, Perú, Surinam, Trinidad y Tobago, Uruguay y Venezuela (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba y Atkinson, 2018; Córdoba et al., 2021, 2023, 2025; Martínez et al., 2019; Smith et al., 2017).
Xyleborus volvulus (Fabricius, 1775)* (fig. 28a, c, e, g)
Distribución. Argentina:Jujuy yMisiones; América del Sur: Bolivia, Brasil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana Francesa, Guyana, Paraguay, Perú, Surinam, Trinidad y Tobago, Uruguay y Venezuela (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba y Atkinson, 2018; Córdoba et al., 2021, 2023, 2025; Martínez et al., 2019; Smith et al., 2017; Wood, 2007).
Xyleborus scaber Schedl, 1949 (fig. 28b, d, f, h)
Distribución. Argentina: Tucumán; América del Sur: Brasil (Atkinson, 2025; Córdoba et al., 2023, 2025).
Figura 27. a, Vista dorsal de Xyleborus biconicus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de X. affinis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista lateral de X. biconicus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de X. affinis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, vista frontal de X. biconicus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); f, vista frontal de X. affinis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); g, vista posterior de X. biconicus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); h, vista posterior de X. affinis (tomada de Atkinson, 2025).
Discusión
Atkinson (2025) enumera 199 especies de Scolytinae para la Argentina. De estas especies, 56 están presentes en Tucumán, lo cual representa aproximadamente 31% de las especies conocidas de la subfamilia para el país. Consideramos que esta cifra es muy baja en comparación con la fauna de otras regiones neotropicales. El número de especies tucumanas coincide con la abundancia de especies de la tribu Xyleborini documentadas en todo el territorio mexicano, siendo esta tribu uno de los grupos más diversos a nivel mundial (Pérez-Silva et al., 2021).
La diversidad de especies en la provincia de Tucumán, comparada con los países limítrofes ubicados aproximadamente a la misma latitud (Chile, Paraguay y Uruguay) es alta, ya que Atkinson (2025) reporta 52 especies para Chile, 46 para Paraguay y 14 para Uruguay. En Argentina, 10% de las especies son introducidas, mientras que en Uruguay más de la mitad (57%) son especies exóticas. Esto se debe al incremento de terrenos destinados a la plantación de especies forestales arbóreas en Uruguay y al crecimiento del comercio internacional, en particular el intercambio de embalajes de madera, lo que facilita el establecimiento de especies exóticas (Gómez et al, 2017b). En la provincia de Tucumán, 12% son especies introducidas, lo que puede deberse al bajo porcentaje de superficie forestal. La mayoría de estas especies fueron recolectadas en ambientes naturales, son especies establecidas en el país y su origen foráneo está bien documentado (Wood, 1982, 2007).
Figura 28. a, Vista dorsal de Xyleborus volvulus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); b, vista dorsal de X. scaber (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); c, vista lateral de X. volvulus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); d, vista lateral de X. scaber (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); e, vista frontal de X. volvulus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); f, vista frontal de X. scaber (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); g, vista posterior de X. volvulus (tomada de Atkinson, 2025); h, vista posterior de X. scaber (tomada de Atkinson, 2025).
Aunque Wood (2007) realizó una revisión de los Scolytinae para América del Sur, donde se incluyen especies presentes en Argentina, las nuevas especies, los recientes registros y los cambios taxonómicos hacen necesarias claves actualizadas. Además, no se cuenta con claves para la identificación a nivel más local, para la provincia y el país. Uno de los problemas principales de la clave de tribus de Wood (2007) es que intenta seguir sus ideas sobre la filogenia de los grupos y muchas veces ignora características sencillas, empleando algunas más difíciles de interpretar. Como consecuencia, muchos de sus dilemas son demasiado largos y complejos, dificultando su interpretación. Otro problema es que sigue estrictamente un concepto dicotómico sin presentar una matriz de caracteres que esconde similitudes para el reconocimiento. Por ejemplo, en todos los géneros de la tribu Scolytini, la cabeza está descubierta en vista dorsal a pesar de la impresión que presenta la clave en el primer dilema. Hay otros ejemplos que se pueden citar. Aquí hemos intentado usar caracteres menos ambiguos, sin considerar su supuesto valor filogenético.
Las presentes claves taxonómicas, que incorporan los cambios, especies recientemente descritas y nuevos registros, constituyen una importante herramienta para la identificación rápida de las especies de Argentina y América del Sur, lo cual puede ser de gran utilidad en casos de invasión de los cultivos o para futuras investigaciones.
Agradecimientos
A Eduardo Agustín Mendoza (Área Biología Integrativa, Fundación Miguel Lillo) por su valiosa colaboración y asistencia en todas las colectas en el campo. A Pablo Pereyra (Instituto de Iconografía, Área de Zoología, Fundación Miguel Lillo) por su contribución en la toma de fotografías y edición de las mismas.
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An analysis of iNaturalist data on several taxonomic groups of insects in Mexico is presented. A decreasing trend was observed in species diversity per year for 4 families of butterflies, bumblebees, and dragonflies and damselflies. Analyses were performed on several potential vegetation types (sensu Rzedowsky), and the roles of deforestation and pesticide use on the identified trends were explored. Challenges in using unsystematic data to estimate trends are discussed, and several hypotheses are provided to explain the results.
Se presenta un análisis de datos de iNaturalist sobre varios grupos taxonómicos de insectos en México. Se observó una tendencia decreciente en la diversidad de especies por año para 4 familias de mariposas, y para abejorros y libélulas. Se realizaron análisis sobre varios tipos potenciales de vegetación (sensu Rzedowsky) y se exploró el papel de la deforestación y el uso de pesticidas en las tendencias identificadas. Se discuten los desafíos del uso de datos no sistemáticos para estimar tendencias y se presentan varias hipótesis para explicar los resultados.
Palabras clave: Mariposas, Abejorros; Caballitos del diablo; Libélulas; NaturaLista
Introduction
Evidence indicates a decrease in insect populations in many countries (Edwards et al., 2025; Hallmann et al., 2017). This finding is worrisome for many reasons, including that insects are key components of ecosystems and provide societies with important ecosystem services, such as pollination (Potts et al., 2010). Moreover, insects have substantial but largely unappreciated cultural importance (Duffus et al., 2021), not only worldwide but particularly in countries such as Mexico, where insects have culinary uses (Ramos-Elorduy & Viejo-Montesinos, 2007), have been important for ancestral cultures (Beutelspacher, 1989), and have economic and societal value (Ayala et al., 2012; Rogel-Fajardo et al., 2011).
Most detailed evidence of the decline in insects has come from countries in temperate zones that have developed formal monitoring schemes (Streitberger et al., 2024; Thomas, 2005). In contrast, tropical regions are less well studied (Sánchez-Herrera et al., 2024), and the existing evidence is contradictory (Bonadies et al., 2024; Boyle et al., 2025; Wagner et al., 2021). For instance, studies on Hemiptera (Lucas et al., 2016) and on saturniid moths (Basset et al., 2017) have indicated no trends in Barro Colorado Island, Panama. Similarly, in Veracruz, Mexico, well monitored fruit flies have shown no trends (Aluja et al., 2012; Ordano et al., 2013). In contrast, decreases in saturniid larvae have been reported in Costa Rica (Salcido et al., 2020), and declines in arthropod biomass have been reported in Puerto Rico and, on the basis of a few data points, in Chamela, Mexico (Lister & García, 2018). The monarch butterfly, perhaps the best monitored insect species in Mexico, has shown consistent decreases in its wintering aggregations (Thogmartin et al., 2017; Vidal & Rendón-Salinas, 2014; Zylstra et al., 2021).
Because of its history, climate, topography, and cultural milieu (Ramamoorthy et al., 1993), Mexico is among the world’s megadiverse countries (Mittermeier et al., 1997). Therefore, assessing the trends in insect populations in Mexico should be prioritized. Unfortunately, long-term insect monitoring in Mexico is rare. Although Mexico has a long history of entomological research, including many collections and hundreds of publications (Michán & Llorente, 2002), monitoring has been limited to only a few species. Although the reasons for the lack of national monitoring schemes like those existing in other countries should be determined, this study does not attempt to do so. It takes as a premise that, in Mexico, just a few systematically obtained insect time series of more than 2-3 years long are available. This study is aimed at estimating insect biodiversity trends in Mexico, despite the absence of systematic monitoring efforts.
Systematic monitoring results are compiled in several worldwide time series databases, such as the Living Planet Index (Almond et al., 2020) and the Global Population Dynamics database (NERC Centre for Population Biology, 1999). Unfortunately, these databases have sparse insect information and contain no data for Mexico. Another possibility is using so-called citizen science (CS) data (Cohn, 2008), which, although opportunistic and unsystematic, is often abundant. Data on insects collected by non-professionals have been used to estimate phenology and distributions (Soroye et al., 2018). However, using such data to estimate population trends is challenging, as discussed below.
In Mexico, perhaps the most comprehensive CS initiative is iNaturalist (known as Naturalista in Mexico). iNaturalist began its operations in Mexico in 2008, although in 2013 the initiative came under the leadership of the national biodiversity agency, Conabio, under the name of Naturalista (Macías & Freire, 2017) and obtained funding from the Slim Foundation. Therefore, in Mexico, iNaturalist began in earnest in 2013. Despite this relatively late start, Mexico is the third country in amount of data (Mason et al., 2025) and it contains more than 80,000 records tagged as “research level” for 3 families of butterflies, and the damselflies, dragonflies, and bumblebees. This substantial information may be used to assess trends. However, CS data must be corrected for biases, of which are many (Crall et al., 2011). Specifically, in Mexico, the number of observers (and thus of observations) in iNaturalist increases each year (Table S1), and this bias should be considered when using such data.
Indeed, a major problem in using opportunistic CS data to estimate trends is correcting for biases in recording efforts (Di Cecco et al., 2021). Several methods can be used to address this problem (Isaac et al., 2014; Outhwaite, 2019; Tang et al., 2021). One of the simplest methods is correcting bias by obtaining the quotient of the metric used to report biodiversity to some measure of the effort invested in a locality, for a given period. What is “effort,” and how can it be measured in iNaturalist data? Collection effort is difficult to define but can be described in terms of: 1) the time spent collecting, 2) the method of collection and number of collectors, or 3) the number of specimens or species observed (Gulland, 1969; Willott, 2001). iNaturalist data allows for extraction of a measure of time (number of monthly observations in a year), but data quality (beyond the “research” tag, which refers to the reliability of the name assigned to the species), remains unreported, and worse, in the case of iNaturalist, this quality is known to change (Di Cecco et al., 2021). Di Cecco (2021) has suggested that, in iNaturalist, observers with at least 2 observations are more reliable than those with just 1 observation. Therefore, as a measure of effort, this study used the number of observers with 2 or more observations. As biodiversity measures it is used the number of species, and the number of observations, pooled for spatial units and year. Two indices are then calculated: number of species/effort, and number of records/effort.
Ordinary regressions of metrics against time often experience problems of autocorrelated errors and non-equal variances (heteroskedasticity). These are characteristic of time series (Shumway & Stoffer, 2005) and must be accounted for. One method of addressing the complexities of analysis of count time series data is using a package such as “trim” (in the R platform), which assumes a Poisson model for the underlying data (Pannekoek, 1998). This approach corrects for the autocorrelation of errors and for heteroskedasticity. Trim has frequently been used for European (van Strien et al., 2019) and tropical American (Novoyny & Basset, 2000) data, but the key assumption of count data (a discrete scale) complicates analysis of continuous-scale indices, or data including many non-occurrences, because the software is sensitive to the presence of zeroes, or NAs, in the data.
Another possibility is estimating whether a significant trend exists in the data, by using a non-parametric Mann-Kendall test (Lyubchich et al., 2013). An ordinary least squares linear regression (OLS) of metric against time is first performed, and the existence of trends (linear or monotonic) is subsequently determined. This method uses the sign of the slope in the OLS, and the significance is tested with the Mann-Kendall test.
Additional methods can be used, such as, for a single species, the logit of the probability of occupancy of a cell, on a time unit (van Strien et al., 2019) and fit a generalized linear model of predictors, by using the length of the list of species as a measure of effort (Szabo et al., 2010). Then several single species regressions can be combined in an index (van Strien et al., 2019). One problem with this approach is that generalized linear modeling is based on an assumption of independence of errors, which might be violated in a time series.
A statistically more sophisticated modification of the above idea is reporting the proportion of occupied sites under a hierarchical model that separates the actual presence from the act of observation (Outhwaite, 2019). Although apparently very rigorous, this approach has its own problems, including the need to define an appropriate model for the “present” and “observer” components, and the need to have replicated visits to the same site within the same season (van Strien et al., 2019).
Another possibility is using generalized least squares (GLS) regressions, which allow for autocorrelated errors and heteroskedasticity. The R package “nlme” implements this technique. This method can fit an ordinary regression of the index against covariates such as time, and another regression including autocorrelation with power variance decay in its model. Subsequently, the 2 models can be compared with the Akaike criterion, and the best model can be retained. This option was used here, with the simplest ARIMA model with lag = 1 as a model of correlated errors.
This study further assessed whether any existing trends might have differed for different ecological regions of Mexico. A variety of subdivisions of Mexico have been suggested, according to different ecological perspectives, at different spatial resolutions (Anonymous, 1997; Challenger & Soberón, 2012; Miranda & Hernández, 1963; Olson et al., 2001). Here, Rzedowsky’s potential vegetation types were used (Rzedowsky, 1986). Although coarse-grained, these types are based primarily on straightforward floristic criteria, are well known in Mexico, and have a small number of categories.
An important caveat in using CS data is that species that are difficult to identify by sight should be avoided. This work focused on 3 families of butterflies (Papilionidae, Pieridae, and Nymphalidae), with 316 names (skippers and the smallest families in the Papilionoidea were excluded); 23 names for bumblebees; and 293 names for the Odonata (both Zygoptera and Anysoptera). In addition, as a comparison, data on 307 names for Solanaceae were included. The numbers of names (without proper taxonomic validation by experts), as reported by iNaturalist, are listed in Table 1.
For the butterflies, although using species identified as indicators of “conservation” status (Orta et al., 2022) would have been interesting, most species identified by these authors as indicators had only a few records in the iNaturalist database. Therefore, the analysis was performed not by individual species, but by pooling all the data in the 3 families of butterflies, all the dragon and damselflies, and all the bumblebees.
For obtaining uncertainty bands, grids of hexagons covering the territory of Mexico were defined at several resolutions (Fig. 1). For a given year and taxonomic group, the means and variances over hexagons were determined. Each unique combination of year and hexagon defined an “event,” and thus the abundance metrics were: 1) the number of observations per event (cumulative monthly observations); and 2) the number of different species per event. As a measure of effort, the total number of different observers with at least 2 observations in each “event” was used. The final index was the average over all hexagons with at least 1 record, for a given year, of the number of observations or the number of species, per observer.
Table 1
Numbers of scientific names for the different taxonomic groups in the 4 most visited potential vegetation classes. The butterflies are the Papilionidae (swallowtails), Pieridae (sulfurs), and Nymphalidae (brushfoots).
All Mexico
Xerophytic Shrub
Pine Oak Forest
Grasslands
Tropical Deciduous Forest
Butterflies
413
153
220
220
198
Odonata
292
185
187
105
184
Bombus
23
16
20
9
14
Solanaceae
307
176
210
111
153
Changing the hexagon area might potentially change the results. This problem, described as the “modifiable areal unit problem,” has been long known to geographers (Openshaw, 1984). Fortunately, in this case, the qualitative results were not affected by the resolution of the hexagons (data correlations among resolutions always exceeded 0.7). Consequently, only the analysis using the largest (2 degrees) hexagons (n = 81) is reported.
The literature has suggested that the decrease in insect abundance has been due to: 1) increased use of pesticides, 2) decreased habitat area (or increased transformed land area), and 3) climate change. At the scale of the whole country, regressions of data versus time series of pesticide use and deforestation rates are reported.
Figure 1. Hexagons of an area of 2 degrees covering Mexico. The occurrences inside a hexagon, in a year, are pooled for analysis.
Materials and methods
CS data are not ideally suited to the estimation of trends, primarily because of the biased and uneven methods of sampling sites, times, and species. This work used 1 of the 3 methods proposed by Isaac et al. (2014): correcting the reported number of sightings according to a measure of effort. iNaturalist data were downloaded from the Global Biodiversity Information Network (GBIF), as detailed in Table 2.
Data were divided into subsets (keeping records with coordinates) for the 4 largest families in the Papilionoidea: Papilionidae (5,583 records), Pieridae (29,994 records), Nymphalidae (20,145 records), and Lycaenidae (2,326 records). The Lycaenidae was removed from the analysis because many species are relatively difficult to determine visually. Data for the genus Bombus (bumblebees, 6,543 records) and the 2 suborders of the Odonata (the Zygoptera, 12,772 records, and the Anisoptera, 24,003 records) were also downloaded. For comparison purposes, observations of the nightshade family, the Solanaceae (39,014 records), were downloaded. The number and positions of every observation in Mexico are presented in figure 2.
Table 2
Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs) from GBIF for the datasets used in the work.
Taxon
GBIF DOI
iNaturalist Records
Unique names
Nymphalidae
doi.org/10.15468/dl.qta4zp
20,145
223
Papilionidae
doi.org/10.15468/dl.uu4unc
5,583
13
Pieridae
doi.org/10.15468/dl.zug4ee
29,994
80
Lycaenidae
doi.org/10.15468/dl.xgad6g
2,326
97
Odonata
doi.org/10.15468/dl.atdkfz
36,775
292
Anisoptera
24,003
163
Zygoptera
12,772
129
Bombus
doi.org/10.15468/dl.c6h4jz
6,543
23
Solanaceae
doi.org/10.15468/dl.597nj5
39,014
307
Data tagged as “research quality” in the downloaded GBIF data were retained, and basic data cleaning was performed to keep the coordinates inside Mexico. No attempt was made to correct for outdated taxonomy or other known issues present in aggregator data (Chapman, 2005).
Data can be organized as time series, by pooling the observations in a year. This method has a drawback of potentially missing seasonality; however, pooling by month produces tables that are too sparse and therefore are difficult to analyze. To include some measure of uncertainty in the trends, the averages of the calculated indices over all non-empty (i.e., with at least 1 observation) hexagons of 2 degrees of surface were determined, and its standard error calculated.
Two indices were used: different_species/observer and records/observer. The first is a measure of diversity, whereas the second is a measure of abundance. Findings for both are reported. “Observers” refers to the number of observers with at least 2 registered observations.
To summarize trends, a useful statistic may be the slope of a linear model of index as a function of time, which requires regressions of index vs. year. However, as previously discussed, the errors in many time series are not independent, and the equal variance assumption of ordinary least squares is also often violated. If uncorrec- ted, these problems interfere with rigorous calculations of probability under a null hypothesis (McShane et al., 2019). Among the many methods for addressing this problem, generalized least squares regressions (Baillie & Kim, 2018), which enable inclusion of an autoregressive structure of correlations and violations of homoscedasticity, were chosen herein. Two models were fitted to the data: an ordinary linear least squares, and a first order auto-regressive, moving average model (ARIMA) (Shumway & Stoffer, 2005) allowing for heteroskedasticity. The 2 models were compared with an ANOVA (Fox & Weisberg, 2019), and the most likely model (based on the Akaike criterion; see Fox & Weisberg, 2019) was used. This process permitted to obtain, in a rigorous way, the probability for the observed slope values, under a null hypothesis of a slope equal to zero. Reporting the “significance” of slopes has been substantially criticized (McShane et al., 2019). Therefore, the probability (rather than the “significance”) of the slope, based on the assumption of a null model of no trend, is reported. Very small probabilities are highlighted.
The regressions included 2 possible causal factors: forest loss and use of pesticides. The deforestation rate was obtained from the Global Forest Watch website (Sims et al., 2024) with a threshold of 30% of forest cover, as recommended by Sims et al. (2024). This dataset has maintained methodological consistency (Hansen et al., 2013) and therefore is preferable to the INEGI Series (Gebhardt et al., 2015). Agrochemical use was determined as the amount of pesticides used per hectare of cropland, as reported on the FAO Web site. The data came from government reports https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/RP. A discussion of the FAO dataset’s strengths and problems has been provided by Shattuck et al. (2023).
Figure 2. Points of occurrence of observations, for iNaturalist, for (A) the dragonflies (Anysoptera, 24,003 records), (B) the damselflies (Zygoptera, 12,772 records), (C) 3 families of butterflies (Papilionidae, Pieridae, Nymphalidae, 58,048 records) and (D) the bumblebees (genus Bombus, 6,543 records).
Because the probability of the observed values of the slope of the index of diversity per unit of effort vs. time, under a null hypothesis of 0 slope, was small in most cases, the regression was assumed to remove the time trend, and factors affecting just the residuals were searched for. That is, the residual of the index vs. time regressions was regressed against 2 predictors: deforestation rate and use of pesticides. The results are shown in the Supplementary materials.
To aggregate by “biome,” the subdivision of the Potential Vegetation of Mexico (Rzedowsky, 1986) was selected. A shapefile of Rzedowsky’s map at 1:4,000,000 scale, available at Conabio Geoportal, is produced by Instituto de Geografía, UNAM México. This map was used to pool the iNaturalist records according to potential vegetation, by using the 4 categories with the highest number of iNaturalist reports.
An informal survey was circulated among scientists working in 3 major ecology research centers in Mexico (INECOL, Veracruz, Instituto de Ecología, UNAM, and Ecosur, Chiapas). A total of 37 questionnaires were sent with Qualtrics. The questions are provided in the Supplementary materials. The main data tables and R code are openly available (Creative Commons CC0: 1) at https://github.com/jsoberon/iNaturalistInsectsMexico
Results
The informal questionnaire received 27 responses out of 37 requests. Among the respondents, 84% stated that they have observed a decrease in the number of insects either in streetlights in villages, or in the windshields or radiators of field vehicles. Although these answers lacked statistical rigor, they suggested a widespread perception among field biologists in Mexico that insect populations are becoming smaller.
The iNaturalist data provided a more nuanced picture. Before examining the trends in biodiversity indices, basic data were analyzed. Indeed, both the number of species and the number of observers (with more than 2 observations) increased (Fig. 3).
The numbers of observed species and observers both increase over time. The increased number of observers introduced an important bias in the data, given that more species (or more individuals) would reasonably be expected to be reported if more observers were present. However, although the diversity of insects appeared to be decreasing, the evidence of a decrease in abundance was unclear (Fig. 4; Tables 3, 4).
Diversity per unit effort appeared to decrease (Table 3). However, the trends in the abundance (observations/number observers) were either positive or indistinguishable from 0 (Table 4). Box plots of the slopes of the regressions for the 2 indices (species, and observations) are shown in figure 5.
The above results suggest that diversity is decreasing, but abundance is stable. This finding is inconsistent with the informal perceptions of field biologists (as indicated by the questionnaire), most of whom perceived diminished insect abundance. Among the few insect species whose abundance in Mexico has been monitored systematically, Danaus plexippus (monarch butterfly) populations are decreasing (Vidal & Rendón-Salinas, 2014; Zylstra et al., 2021), whereas Anastrepha fruit fly populations appear to be stable (Aluja et al., 2012; Ordano et al., 2013). Comparing these 2 cases is challenging, because monarch butterflies are affected by a variety of factors occurring on a continental scale, whereas fruit flies might be affected primarily by local factors.
Might the negative trend in diversity correlate with predictors often associated with insect loss? Forest cover, as measured via remote sensing over 15 years (Hansen et al., 2013), is decreasing in Mexico (Supplementary materials). Pesticide use per hectare of crop, as reported by the FAO, increased until 2018, when the FAO database indicated an abrupt decrease (Supplementary materials). The causes of this decrease, if real, are unknown; however, after the COVID-19 pandemic, Mexico’s primary sector experienced a marked decrease in activity (Sánchez et al., 2022), which may explain a drop in the use of agrochemicals. Regressions of the residuals of the diversity/effort vs. time models against 2 predictors, deforestation rate and pesticide use per hectare, were not associated with small probabilities of an H0 of 0 slope (Supplementary materials). Consequently, the data did not provide evidence that negative slopes in insect diversity were due to pesticide use or deforestation.
Finally, for the major taxonomic groups, the slopes of the generalized least squares, in the first 4 potential vegetation types according to Rzedowsky (1986) were most negative for bumblebees in tropical deciduous forest, followed by pine-oak forest and xerophytic shrub. For the butterflies, the most negative slope was in pine-oak forest, followed by tropical deciduous forest and xerophytic shrub (Supplementary materials: Table S3). In the case of the Solanaceae, a group included for comparison purposes, the slope is only negative in the grasslands vegetation type.
Figure 3. Growth in the mean reported number of species (A) and the mean number of observers with more than 2 observations during the study period (B). The average was taken over hexagons of 2 degrees of area covering the country. Bmblbs are all the species in the genus Bombus, Drgs, Anisoptera (dragonflies); Dmsls, Zygoptera (damselflies). The other lines correspond to butterflies in 3 families, and to the nightshade family of plants.Figure 4. Average and standard error (band) of different_species/effort vs. time in years, for the bumblebees (A), damselflies (Zygoptera) (B), dragonflies (Anisoptera) (C), nymphalids (D), swallowtails (Papilionidae) (E), and sulfurs (Pieridae) (F). Except for the damselflies (which has a slope indistinguishable from zero), the slopes were all negative and, except for (B) and (E), had very low probabilities of the observed values, under a null hypothesis of zero slope (Table 2).
Table 3
Regression analysis (generalized least squares) of diversity/observer vs. time in the iNaturalist data, for the main taxonomic groups. The analysis was performed over the mean values in hexagons of 2 degrees of resolution. With the exception of the Zygoptera, for which the first order autoregressive model did not converge, the ordinary least squares regression did not significantly differ with respect to models with autocovariance and heteroskedasticity. Consequently, the table shows the slope of ordinary linear models of different_species/effort with respect to time. The probabilities of the obtained values under a null hypothesis of slope of zero were very small, with the exception of the dragonflies and swallowtails (Fig. 2).
Taxon
Species, 2 degrees
Slope
p
Model
n
Bombus
-0.0428
0.0000237
OLS
6,543
Anisoptera
-0.0206
0.00155
OLS
24,003
Zygoptera
0.0003
0.942
OLS_NO_CNV
12,772
Nymphalidae
-0.0372
0.000000242
OLS
20,145
Papilionidae
-0.0108
0.104
OLS
5,583
Pieridae
-0.0247
0.000202
OLS
29,994
Table 4
Regression analysis (generalized least squares) of records/observer vs. time in the iNaturalist data, for the main taxonomic groups. The data were averaged over hexagons of 2 degrees of resolution. Except for the Zygoptera, for which a first order autoregressive model was used, the ordinary least squares regression did not significantly differ with respect to models with autocovariance and heteroskedasticity. Consequently, the table shows the slope of ordinary linear regressions of number_of_records/effort with respect to time. Notably, every regression had a positive, low probability slope.
Taxon
Slope
p
Model
n
Bombus
0.0446
0.00000766
OLS
6,543
Anisoptera
0.0201
0.00649
OLS
24,003
Zygoptera
0.0366
6.86E-08
ARIMA
12,772
Nymphalidae
0.0089
0.034
OLS
20,145
Papilionidae
0.0669
0.00000176
OLS
5,583
Pieridae
0.0154
0.0000984
OLS
29,994
Figure 5. Box plot of the slopes of the regression of index vs. time, for observations/effort (O) or species/effort (S). Note that for S, 5 of the 6 slopes are negative. The dashed horizontal line highlights the zero slope.
Discussion
The results show a tendency to decrease the number of species with time, for the insects, and a much less marked negative trend for the Solanaceae. This suggests that CS data does capture some sort of biological signal in the data. However, a diminishing trend of diversity, together with a stable pattern of abundance, are compatible with several hypotheses. One entirely biological hypothesis is that insect diversity, but not abundance, is decreasing. If the rarest species are disappearing, then the country is homogenizing (McKinney & Lockwood, 1999). Thus, Mexico’s highly diverse and unique insect biodiversity is slowly being replaced by a more homogeneous, more cosmopolitan set of species. This rather alarming possibility, supported by the CS data, must be more directly assessed in the field.
Another explanation for the observed negative trend in insect species numbers might be that, over time, observers have reached the asymptote of the total number of species available to be observed. Since the total number of species in any given area is probably roughly constant, with sufficient effort, no more than that constant number can be reported; however, if the number of observers is increasing, a negative trend in the index of species/observers would result. The total number of species in the database, for each taxonomic group, is shown in Table 1. The average number of species reported per hexagon was well below that total (Supplementary materials: Table S4), thus suggesting that a saturation effect was not present, and the results presented here indeed indicate a decreasing trend in insect diversity. This complex point is discussed at more length in the Supplementary materials.
Finally, the negative trend is also compatible with a hypothesis regarding the quality of iNaturalist observers in which the number of observers has increased, as indicated by the data, whereas the observers’ discrimination ability or interests might have changed over time, perhaps because they focused on common species. Unfortunately, the very nature of the information in CS data makes assessing this effect very difficult. This aspect essentially describes the main problem with using unstructured CS data: because the methods are not standardized, any trend in the data might be explained by a trend in the behavior of the observers.
What explanations can be deduced for the absence of trends in the number of observations/effort? One possibility is that the presence of more observers simply resulted in more observations, and the number of observations and observers with more than 2 observations are roughly proportional. This means that the lack of trend could be an artifact of the data.
These results should be considered as hypotheses to be examined through more direct methods. Nonetheless, the results strongly suggest decreasing numbers of species in butterflies (important from a cultural perspective and perhaps a pollination perspective), bumblebees (important as pollinators), and Odonata (important as insect predators and as indicators). Therefore, the biodiversity of some of the most important and underappreciated groups of species in Mexico appears to be decreasing. If confirmed, this result would be highly alarming. Indeed, insects are key components of ecosystems (Noriega et al., 2018). Although for most insect species in Mexico we do not have direct documentation of their role, or of the economic and cultural value of their services, we have substantial indirect evidence of their importance as pollinators (Ashworth et al., 2009), as natural enemies of agricultural pests (López et al., 1999; Aluja et al., 2014), and as potential for non-conventional agri-business (López-Gutierrez et al., 2023). If substantiated, the decrease we report should be a major cause of alarm for Mexicans.
What might be causing a decrease? In a study in Europe (Schuch et al., 2012), in which a similar decrease in diversity was reported in a family of bugs of agricultural importance, a concomitant loss of non-agricultural habitat for the insects was reported. The study was conducted at the species level, and the authors argue that the more specialized, less tolerant species are those disappearing because of agricultural expansion. Again, monitoring using standardized procedures is required to test this idea.
Climate change is often cited as a cause of population decline in insects. However, climate change is a long-term phenomenon that occurs at the scale of many decades. To demonstrate climate change as a factor affecting population size, modeling or documentation of the effect of mean and variance in climatic variables on long-term population time series is necessary (Batalden et al., 2014; Boggs, 2016). The data used in this work is not appropriate for this purpose.
The results suggested that negative trends might not be identical among ecological regions. However, interestingly, the iNaturalist data indicated that pine-oak forest, xeric shrub, and tropical deciduous forest might be hotspots of diversity loss. This finding is somewhat surprising, given the widespread concern regarding tropical rainforests. Of course, the results may be due to the scarcity of data for tropical wet vegetation types.
CS data exists in substantial and growing amounts. It is a very valuable source of data. However, as with any data, it contains biases that are sometimes difficult to remove. The unavoidable conclusion is that Mexico must crucially invest in countrywide insect monitoring schemes based on systematic methods. Several approaches could be used. The first is improving CS schemes, providing training, and applying standard protocols, as performed in Canada, the USA, and many European countries (Streiter et al., 2024). This approach might be useful only for conspicuous, easily identifiable species, yet it markedly influences public environmental awareness and therefore should be maintained (Dickinson et al., 2012). Several methods using advanced technologies include computer vision, bioacoustics, and metagenomics can also be used (Van Klink et al., 2022). For bats, monitoring is already underway in Mexico (Zamora-Gutiérrez et al., 2020). Adoption of high technology methods would require funding, training, and substantial analytical capacity.
Regardless of the method chosen, in Mexico, the fourth most biologically diverse country on the planet, monitoring as many biodiversity components as possible is critical, and insects, “the little things that run the world” in the words of E. O. Wilson, appear to be disappearing very rapidly. Societies need to pay attention.
Acknowledgements
I am very grateful to Luis Eguiarte and Rodrigo Medellín, of the Mexican Instituto de Ecología, for their detailed and positive criticism of the methods I used. Their feedback led to several changes in the data analysis methods. Exequiel Ezcurra, of the University of California at Irvine, and Carlos Martinez, formerly of the University of Wyoming, also made very helpful statistical suggestions. My students Jennifer Ramos and Anahí Quezada helped me download and organize the data and patiently discussed the project with me. I gratefully thank the field ecologists in Mexico who took the time to respond to the questionnaire regarding their experiences with insects in the field.
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Functional diversity and composition of insect communities at different levels of disturbance
Víctor Manuel Caballero-Chan, Alejandra González-Moreno*, Horacio Salomón Ballina-Gómez y Carlos Juan Alvarado-López
Tecnológico Nacional de México, Instituto Tecnológico de Conkal, División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Av. Tecnológico s/n, 97345 Conkal, Yucatán, México
*Autor para correspondencia: alejandra.gonzalez@itconkal.edu.mx (A. González-Moreno)
Recibido: 18 enero 2025; aceptado: 30 mayo 2025
Resumen
La diminución en la cobertura vegetal y la perturbación antropogénica tienen efectos negativos sobre la diversidad de insectos. Este trabajo tuvo como objetivo evaluar la diversidad funcional y la composición de comunidades de insectos fitófagos y benéficos en diferentes niveles de perturbación de Yucatán, México. Se instalaron 6 trampas Malaise por sitio, durante 5 meses en temporada de lluvias. Los ejemplares se identificaron a nivel familia y grupo funcional; se analizó la diversidad en términos de riqueza, familias comunes y dominantes de cada grupo funcional. Se registraron 25,872 individuos de 106 familias, 12 órdenes y 4 grupos funcionales (fitófagos, polinizadores, depredadores y parasitoides). Aunque la riqueza de familias fue similar, la diversidad de familias comunes y dominantes mostró diferencias en los sitios con niveles medios y altos de perturbación. Estos resultados sugieren que algunas familias son exitosas en niveles altos de perturbación y otras disminuyen su diversidad. Las familias dominantes de los fitófagos, polinizadores, parasitoides y depredadores fueron: Pyralidae, Geometridae, Tachinidae y Coccinellidae, respectivamente.
Palabras clave: Urbanización; Grupos funcionales; Fitófagos; Insectos benéficos
Abstract
Decreased vegetation cover and anthropogenic disturbance can negatively impact insect diversity. This research aimed to assess the functional diversity and community composition of phytophagous and beneficial insects at different levels of disturbance in Yucatán, Mexico. Six Malaise traps were deployed at each site during 5 months in the rainy season. Specimens were identified to the family and functional group levels, and diversity was analyzed based on family richness, as well as the composition of common and dominant families for every functional group. A total of 25,872 individuals representing 106 families, 12 orders, and 4 functional groups were recorded (phytophagous, pollinators, predators and parasitoids). While family richness was comparable across sites, the diversity of common and dominant families differed between areas with medium and high levels of disturbance. These results suggest that some families thrive under high disturbance levels, whereas other experiences a decline in diversity. The dominant families of phytophagous, pollinators, parasitoids and predators were: Pyralidae, Geometridae, Tachinidae, and Coccinellidae, respectively.
En México, un país considerado megadiverso, el crecimiento de las zonas urbanas y la intensificación de la agricultura, están poniendo en riesgo la diversidad de insectos nativos presentes en zonas naturales (Martínez-Ramos et al., 2016), así como ocasionando cambios en el comportamiento de distintos grupos de insectos, que comprometen funciones ecológicas críticas como la polinización, el control biológico de plagas y la descomposición de la materia orgánica (Wagner et al., 2021). La perturbación antropogénica derivada de la urbanización, que incluye la construcción de infraestructura y el desarrollo de asentamientos humanos, junto con la agricultura intensiva, la deforestación, la fragmentación del hábitat, la contaminación y cambio climático, está generando una presión sin precedentes sobre la biodiversidad (Betts et al., 2019; Fahrig et al., 2019). La disminución de especies de vertebrados, como aves, anfibios y mamíferos está bien documentada; sin embargo, la pérdida de diversidad en invertebrados es menos conocida y se desconoce si está ocurriendo a la misma velocidad que en otros grupos; aunque estudios más recientes, incluidos varios metaanálisis, han evidenciado el declive de los insectos (Wagner et al., 2021).
En particular, se ha demostrado que la urbanización y agricultura intensiva afectan negativamente a los polinizadores, principalmente por la pérdida de hábitat, cambios en la disponibilidad de alimentos y la alteración de sus patrones de comportamiento (Biella et al., 2022; Fisogni et al., 2020; Tavares-Brancher et al., 2024). Pero, la urbanización no solo afecta a los polinizadores, sino que en general contribuye a la disminución de insectos debido a múltiples factores, como el incremento en la intensidad lumínica (Boyes et al., 2021), en la temperatura, evaporación y la exposición al viento y a diversos contaminantes, que alteran su comportamiento y actividad (Dirzo, 2014; Wagner et al., 2021); especialmente aquellos que ocupan altos niveles tróficos como los parasitoides y depredadores (Betancourt et al., 2021; Janzen y Hallwachs, 2021). Esta pérdida de diversidad no solo es preocupante por la pérdida de especies en sí misma, sino también por la disminución de las múltiples funciones ecológicas que realizan los insectos (Fenoglio et al., 2020; Wagner et al., 2021).
En México se han realizado algunos estudios sobre cómo la diversidad de insectos varía en varios niveles de perturbación, con resultados contrastantes, dependiendo del taxón a estudiar, del grupo funcional al que pertenecen y de las características de los sitios perturbados. En general, se ha demostrado que la urbanización tiene un impacto negativo sobre la diversidad de abejas (Muñoz-Urías et al., 2025), coleópteros (Cortés-Arzola y León-Cortés, 2021) y hormigas, principalmente de hábitos arborícolas (Roche-Ortega y Castaño- Meneses, 2015) y mariposas (Ramírez-Restrepo y Halffter, 2013). Actualmente, la península de Yucatán está siendo amenazada por el crecimiento urbano descontrolado y las prácticas agrícolas no sostenibles, por lo que se planteó la siguiente pregunta de investigación ¿cómo varían las comunidades de insectos en términos de diversidad funcional y composición, en diferentes niveles de perturbación? Tomando en cuenta que los resultados de las evaluaciones de diversidad pueden variar según el nivel taxonómico considerado y los requerimientos ecológicos del taxón a estudiar (Fenoglio et al., 2020), en este trabajo se planteó abordarlo a nivel de familia, considerando el grupo funcional que conforman y la función que llevan a cabo como fitófagos, depredadores, parasitoides o polinizadores.
El objetivo del presente trabajo fue evaluar la diversidad funcional y la composición de comunidades de insectos fitófagos y benéficos en diferentes niveles de perturbación de Yucatán; para ello se plantearon las siguientes hipótesis: la diversidad de insectos fitófagos será mayor en zonas con mayor nivel de perturbación; por el contrario, los insectos benéficos serán más diversos en niveles de perturbación menores y la familia dominante de cada grupo funcional será diferente en cada nivel de perturbación. Realizar estas evaluaciones podría ser significativo para implementar estrategias de conservación dentro de las ciudades, además de que las evaluaciones de la diversidad de invertebrados son prioritarias para avanzar en el entendimiento de la defaunación, principalmente en regiones tropicales (Dirzo, 2014; Wagner et al., 2021).
Materiales y métodos
El estudio se llevó a cabo en 3 zonas de Yucatán que se eligieron considerando el grado de perturbación, de acuerdo con el índice de disturbio (ID), según el método propuesto por Martorell y Peters (2005). En cada zona, se seleccionaron 2 sitios al azar, se utilizaron fotografías aéreas (INEGI SINFA 1:250 000, 2019 CLAVE F16-10 LÍNEA 166) que fueron importadas al programa Arc view 3.1. El ID se basa en la cuantificación de 15 parámetros, los cuales están comprendidos en 1 de 3 categorías: 1) cría de ganado (frecuencia de excrementos de cabra, frecuencia de excremento de vaca, ramoneo, caminos para el ganado y compactación del suelo); 2) actividades humanas (extracción de leña, número de caminos, superficie de senderos, proximidad de asentamientos humanos, cercanía a núcleos de actividad humana, porcentaje de uso del suelo y evidencia de incendios forestales) y 3) degradación del suelo (porcentaje de erosión, presencia de islas de erosión y superficie totalmente modificada). Una vez que se estimó el índice de perturbación en cada sitio, se establecieron 3 niveles de perturbación: alto (índice de perturbación entre 10 y 15), medio (entre 2.1 y 5) y bajo (entre 0 y 2). Así, se seleccionaron 2 sitios por nivel de afectación, resultando 6 sitios en total (tabla 1).
La zona con alto nivel de perturbación, a la cual se denominó zona urbana, se ubicó alrededores de la ciudad de Mérida (21°01’ N, 89°33’ O), al norte del estado, dominada por un paisaje urbano, con 75% de cobertura gris y apenas 10% de cobertura de material vegetal (Biles y Lemberg, 2023). La zona con nivel medio de perturbación, nombrada zona periurbana, se localiza en el municipio de Conkal (21°05’ N, 89°30’ O), al este del municipio de Mérida, con 40% de cobertura gris y 35% de cobertura vegetal, dominada por cultivos de maíz y vegetación circundante de selva baja caducifolia (Rzedowski, 1978). La zona, con bajo nivel de perturbación, llamada zona natural, se localiza en la reserva privada “Komchén de los Pájaros” (21°13’ N, 89°19’ O), al oeste de los municipios de Dzemul y Telchac, presenta una cobertura vegetal de 80% y una cobertura gris inferior a 5% (fig. 1); la vegetación es selva baja caducifolia, conformada principalmente por varias especies de la familia Fabaceae: Piscidia piscipula (jabín), Caesalpinia gaumeri (kitinché), Lysiloma latisiliquum (tzalam) y la familia Burseraceae: Bursera simaruba (palo mulato) (Flores y Espejel, 1994). Las 3 zonas presentan un clima cálido subhúmedo con lluvias en verano con rangos de precipitación anual que van de 1,050 mm a 1,200 mm. La temperatura media anual es de 26 a 28 °C.
Tabla 1
Índice y categoría de perturbación de los 6 sitios seleccionados en México.
Nombre del sitio
Tipo de sitio
Índice
Nivel
Mérida 1
Huerto en ciudad
10.33
Alto
Mérida 2
Huerto en ciudad
11.35
Alto
Conkal 1
Huerto periurbano con cultivo de maíz
2.22
Medio
Conkal 2
Huerto periurbano con cultivo de maíz
3.59
Medio
Komchén de los Pájaros 1
Selva baja caducifolia
0.78
Bajo
Komchén de los Pájaros 2
Selva baja caducifolia
0.81
Bajo
Se llevaron a cabo muestreos sistemáticos durante la temporada de lluvias, de julio a diciembre de 2023. En cada nivel de perturbación se instalaron 2 trampas de intercepción tipo Malaise, separadas por más de 2 km, para asegurar la independencia de las muestras; estas trampas fueron seleccionadas por su alta eficacia en la captura pasiva de insectos voladores, incluidos lepidópteros diurnos y nocturnos (Schmidt et al., 2019), además de ser uno de los métodos de muestreo mayormente utilizados para hacer evaluaciones de biodiversidad, y permiten obtener un muestreo representativo de los ensambles presentes en cada sitio (Chan-Canché et al., 2020; Kaczmarek et al., 2022). En los sitios urbanos las trampas fueron colocadas en jardines de casas particulares; en la zona periurbana se colocaron en cultivos de maíz y en la zona natural en parches de vegetación. Las trampas funcionaron ininterrumpidamente durante 5 meses con cortes quincenales de recolecta, resultando un total de 10 muestras por sitio. Los botes recolectores de las trampas tenían 1 L de etanol desnaturalizado al 70%, el cual era reemplazado en cada recolecta. Cada muestra se procesó según las técnicas curatoriales convencionales, en el laboratorio de plagas agrícolas del Instituto Tecnológico de Conkal; todos los insectos se conservaron en etanol al 70% y se seleccionaron algunos ejemplares para su montaje en seco en alfileres entomológicos para su posterior identificación; en el caso de los lepidópteros, se empleó la técnica de relajación en cámara húmeda, extensión de alas sobre planchas entomológicas y posterior secado para su correcta preservación y manejo en la colección. Posteriormente se realizó la identificación taxonómica de los ejemplares a categoría de familia, utilizando claves especializadas en insectos de Latinoamérica, como las de Goulet y Huber (1993), Borror y White (1998), Arnett (2000), Triplehorn y Johnson (2005).
Figura 1. Localización de los sitios de muestreo de Mérida, Conkal y Dzemul en Yucatán, México. Los sitios fueron clasificados con diferentes niveles de perturbación. Los puntos indican los sitios donde fueron colocadas las trampas Malaise: zona urbana con nivel alto de perturbación (rojo), zona periurbana con nivel intermedio de perturbación (amarillo) y zona natural con bajo nivel de perturbación (verde).
Se analizó la representatividad del muestreo con el software EstimateS 9.10 mediante curvas de acumulación, con el estimador no paramétrico jackknife 1, conocido por ser uno de los estimadores menos sesgados para muestras pequeñas (Magurran, 2004); se utilizaron las 10 fechas de recolecta como medida del esfuerzo de muestreo, con un total de 3,600 horas de recolecta por trampa. Asimismo, se analizaron las diferencias entre la riqueza de familias entre sitios, considerando los intervalos de confianza al 95% de 1,000 remuestreos calculados mediante la prueba de bootstrap (Colwell y Elsensohn, 2014); la no superposición de los intervalos de confianza indica diferencias estadísticamente significativas (Colwell, 2006). Para realizar el análisis de diversidad de insectos en cada nivel de perturbación, las familias identificadas se agruparon considerando el grupo funcional que conforman: fitófagos, polinizadores, parasitoides o depredadores; para cada grupo el análisis de diversidad fue calculado mediante medidas de diversidad verdadera, usando el software SPADE (Chao y Shen, 2010). Estas medidas contemplan 3 niveles de diversidad basadas en los números de Hill, qD (Jost, 2006): 0D, se refiere a la riqueza de familias solamente; 1D, es la diversidad ecológica si todas las familias tuvieran la misma importancia relativa, usa el inverso del exponencial de la entropía de Shannon; y 2D que considera solo a las familias dominantes, mediante el inverso del índice de Simpson (Moreno et al., 2011). Todos los valores de qD se calcularon por separado y se tomó en cuenta cada zona de manera individual (zona urbana, zona periurbana y zona natural), lo que permitió evaluar la diversidad por cada zona de perturbación para después comparar entre sitios, usando intervalos de confianza de 95% que fueron calculados mediante la prueba de bootstrap, para saber si existen diferencias significativas entre zonas, la no superposición de los intervalos de confianza indica diferencias estadísticamente significativas (Colwell, 2006).
Posteriormente, se analizó la composición de los ensambles de cada grupo funcional en términos de la distribución de abundancias de cada familia, para lo que se construyeron curvas de rango-abundancia para cada nivel de perturbación (Whittaker, 1972).
Resultados
Se recolectaron 25,872 individuos pertenecientes a 4 grupos funcionales: fitófagos, polinizadores, parasitoides y depredadores, clasificados en 12 órdenes y 106 familias (tabla 2). Las curvas de acumulación indican que el muestreo tuvo una eficiencia de 83.4%, (familias observadas = 86; jackknife 1 = 103.1) para la zona urbana, de 84.7% para la zona periurbana (familias observadas = 90; jackknife 1 = 106.2) y de 83.5 % para la zona natural (familias observadas = 73; jackknife 1 = 87.4), con menor riqueza para la zona natural, con intervalos de confianza al 95% (fig. 2).
En el grupo de los fitófagos, la riqueza de familias (0D) y la diversidad de familias dominantes (2D) no mostraron diferencias significativas entre zonas, considerando el sobrelapamiento de los intervalos de confianza al 95%; únicamente la diversidad de familias comunes (1D) muestra que la zona periurbana tiene el valor más alto (tabla 3). La familia Pyralidae se registró dominando en las zonas periurbana y natural, en cambio, la familia Cicadellidae, lo hizo únicamente en la zona urbana (fig. 3A).
Los insectos polinizadores, al igual que los fitófagos, presentaron diferencias en la diversidad de familias comunes (1D), siendo los más diversos en la zona urbana con los intervalos de confianza al 95%. La riqueza (0D) y diversidad de familias dominantes (2D) fueron similares en los 3 sitios (tabla 3). Sin embargo, pese a que la diversidad fue similar, las familias dominantes fueron diferentes en cada nivel de perturbación: Geometridae en los sitios periurbanos con maíz, Nymphalidae en el sitio natural y Erebidae en la zona urbana (fig. 3B).
Tabla 2
Grupos funcionales, órdenes y familias de insectos identificados en un gradiente de perturbación de Yucatán, México.
Grupo
Orden
Familia
Zona urbana
Zona periurbana
Zona natural
Total
Fitófago
Lepidoptera
Pyralidae
2,298
2,117
1,459
5,874
Crambidae
219
969
505
1,693
Tortricidae
242
363
164
769
Noctuidae
3
286
23
312
Tineidae
12
116
54
182
Oecophoridae
0
1
0
1
Hemiptera
Cicadellidae
3,063
1,034
281
4,378
Diaspididae
309
24
4
337
Psyllidae
1
122
2
125
Aphididae
43
11
19
73
Derbidae
9
25
3
37
Cicadidae
13
8
10
31
Cixiidae
9
7
7
23
Liviidae
19
0
1
20
Rhyparochromidae
1
18
0
19
Berytidae
7
3
0
10
Delphacidae
2
6
1
9
Alydidae
3
4
0
7
Membracidae
3
1
1
5
Cercopidae
4
0
0
4
Coreidae
0
4
0
4
Miridae
0
2
1
3
Pentatomidae
1
2
0
3
Pyrrhocoridae
0
3
0
3
Lygaeidae
0
2
0
2
Triozidae
0
0
2
2
Tropiduchidae
1
1
0
2
Cydnidae
1
0
0
1
Dictyopharidae
0
1
0
1
Rhopalidae
0
1
0
1
Tingidae
1
0
0
1
Diptera
Drosophilidae
496
284
98
878
Ulidiidae
158
71
47
276
Tephritidae
1
11
8
20
Psilidae
1
0
0
1
Coleoptera
Chrysomelidae
48
62
34
144
Curculionidae
20
19
14
53
Mordellidae
9
1
3
13
Bruchidae
0
2
0
2
Orthoptera
Gryllidae
5
15
57
77
Acrididae
1
22
6
29
Tettigoniidae
1
6
2
9
Thysanoptera
Phlaeothripidae
2
13
0
15
Thripidae
1
3
3
7
Polinizador
Lepidoptera
Geometridae
187
1,672
222
2,081
Erebidae
251
1,214
390
1,855
Nymphalidae
25
257
1,127
1,409
Pieridae
77
122
119
318
Hesperiidae
31
82
58
171
Pterophoridae
12
38
64
114
Lycaenidae
23
66
14
103
Riodinidae
2
61
0
63
Sphingidae
14
8
1
23
Diptera
Bombyliidae
25
459
66
550
Syrphidae
25
103
7
135
Tipulidae
6
25
25
56
Hymenoptera
Apidae
25
14
7
46
Halictidae
1
0
0
1
Parasitoide
Diptera
Tachinidae
106
593
158
857
Pipunculidae
13
18
15
46
Hymenoptera
Braconidae
146
99
78
323
Ichneumonidae
37
114
63
214
Encyrtidae
114
28
14
156
Figitidae
67
2
2
71
Chalcididae
21
23
3
47
Bethylidae
31
4
11
46
Eulophidae
22
5
6
33
Eupelmidae
14
5
5
24
Diapriidae
12
4
5
21
Aphelinidae
12
5
2
19
Pteromalidae
12
4
3
19
Mymaridae
3
0
11
14
Eurytomidae
9
3
0
12
Evaniidae
5
2
3
10
Tiphiidae
4
4
1
9
Trichogrammatidae
5
0
3
8
Perilampidae
4
1
1
6
Chrysididae
0
5
0
5
Platygastridae
3
1
0
4
Eucharitidae
3
0
0
3
Tetracampidae
0
1
2
3
Mutillidae
0
2
0
2
Dryinidae
0
0
1
1
Rhopalosomatidae
0
1
0
1
Depredador
Coleoptera
Coccinellidae
451
118
51
620
Dytiscidae
5
2
1
8
Carabidae
2
3
0
5
Diptera
Dolichopodidae
250
41
25
316
Asilidae
43
140
59
242
Scenopinidae
0
4
0
4
Hemiptera
Anthocoridae
2
2
1
5
Reduviidae
1
3
0
4
Stenocephalidae
1
0
0
1
Hymenoptera
Crabronidae
58
16
18
92
Vespidae
20
22
4
46
Pompilidae
5
8
2
15
Sphecidae
3
2
0
5
Sapygidae
0
2
1
3
Thynnidae
0
2
0
2
Scoliidae
0
0
1
1
Mantodea
Mantidae
9
17
8
34
Mantoididae
2
1
0
3
Mecoptera
Bittacidae
1
0
0
1
Neuroptera
Chrysopidae
24
73
31
128
Berothidae
0
0
1
1
Myrmeleontidae
0
0
1
1
Los parasitoides, mostraron mayores diferencias en términos de diversidad, siendo la zona urbana la que tuvo la mayor diversidad de especies comunes (1D) y dominantes (2D), pese que la riqueza de familias (0D) fue similar en los 3 niveles de perturbación, según los valores de los intervalos de confianza al 95% (tabla 3). La familia Tachinidae, contrario a lo esperado, se registró como dominante en la zona periurbana y natural, pero en la zona urbana, la familia Braconidae fue la dominante (fig. 3C).
Los insectos depredadores presentaron la misma riqueza de familias (0D) en los diferentes sitios, pero fueron más diversos (1D y 2D) en la zona natural y periurbana, de acuerdo con los intervalos de confianza al 95% (tabla 3) con la familia Asilidae dominando las comunidades más diversas; por el contrario, Coccinellidae dominó las comunidades de la zona urbana (fig. 3D).
Figura 2. Curvas de acumulación de la riqueza de familias de insectos, estimadas con el índice no paramétrico jackknife 1 en diferentes niveles de perturbación, zona urbana (nivel alto de perturbación), zona periurbana (nivel medio de perturbación), zona natural (nivel bajo de perturbación) en Yucatán, México.
Discusión
Los resultados de este trabajo fueron contrarios a nuestra hipótesis de investigación, ya que ésta sugiere que en zonas con altos niveles de perturbación como las ciudades, habría menor diversidad de insectos, principalmente especialistas como los parasitoides, considerando la hipótesis del aumento del disturbio, que indica una disminución en la riqueza de artrópodos, particularmente especialistas, conforme aumenta el grado de urbanización (Gray, 1989, en Fenoglio et al., 2020) y la teoría sobre la complejidad estructural de la vegetación, que afirma que a mayor cobertura vegetal en ecosistemas, habrá un mayor número de plantas disponibles, lo que permitirá alojar mayor diversidad de fitófagos y, por consiguiente, de depredadores y parasitoides (González-Moreno et al., 2023; Guo et al., 2021; Neal et al., 2024).
Figura 3. Curvas de rango-abundancia de Whittaker de los ensambles de insectos, recolectados en diferentes niveles de perturbación, zona urbana (nivel alto de perturbación), zona periurbana (nivel medio de perturbación) y zona natural (nivel bajo de perturbación) en Yucatán, México. Se trazó una escala logarítmica de abundancia frente al rango de familias ordenado desde la familia más abundante (la cual se indica el nombre), hasta la menos abundante por cada grupo funcional: A) fitófagos, B) polinizadores, C) parasitoides, D) depredadores.
Tabla 3
Diversidad verdadera de grupos funcionales de insectos, como número efectivo de familias, con números de Hill para estimar la riqueza de familias (0D), la diversidad de familias comunes (1D) y la diversidad de familias dominantes (2D) en 3 zonas con diferente nivel de perturbación de Yucatán. *Los intervalos de confianza (IDC) al 95%, indican diferencias significativas.
Grupos funcionales
Índices de diversidad verdadera
0D (95% IDC)
1D (95% IDC)
2D (95% IDC)
Fitófagos
Zona urbana
50.6 (39.9, 84.8)
4.8 (4.6, 4.9)*
3.2 (2.4, 4.1)
Zona periurbana
42.4 (39.0, 56.7)
7.2 (6.9, 7.4)*
4.7 (4.0, 5.3)
Zona natural
30.3 (27.7, 43.1)
5.3 (5.0, 5.6)*
3.1 (2.5, 3.8)
Polinizadores
Zona urbana
14.9 (14.1, 25.2)
6.7 (6.2, 7.2)*
4.6 (4.2, 5.0)
Zona periurbana
13.0 (13.0, 13.0)
5.2 (5.0, 5.4)*
3.7 (3.1, 4.3)
Zona natural
12.5 (12.0, 20.0)
4.4 (4.2, 4.7)*
2.9 (2.3, 3.6)
Parasitoides
Zona urbana
21.0 (21.0, 21.0)
10.8 (10.0, 11.6)*
7.7 (7.4, 8.0)*
Zona periurbana
23.6 (22.3, 32.0)
4.0 (3.6, 4.3)*
2.3 (1.5, 3.1)*
Zona natural
21.3 (20.2, 29.3)
6.9 (6.0, 7.8)*
4.2 (3.6, 4.8)*
Depredadores
Zona urbana
18.7 (16.4, 31.7)
4.1 (3.8, 4.5)*
2.8 (2.0, 3.6)*
Zona periurbana
17.5 (17.0, 22.7)
7.0 (6.3, 7.7)
5.0 (4.5, 5.6)
Las diferencias encontradas en la riqueza de familias de insectos, sin tomar en cuenta su función en los ecosistemas, puede explicarse según la hipótesis de la perturbación media, que propone que la diversidad puede ser mayor en sitios donde la perturbación no es muy frecuente ni muy intensa, comparada con sitios no perturbados o con perturbación intensa (Connell, 1978).
El efecto de la perturbación y heterogeneidad del paisaje sobre la diversidad puede ser diferente dependiendo de la escala de estudio (Corcos et al., 2019), del taxón y del grupo funcional (Fenoglio et al., 2020), como se pudo observar en este trabajo. Las comunidades más diversas de fitófagos se presentaron en los sitios periurbanos con cultivos de maíz, probablemente, por la oferta mayor de alimento que puede representar el cultivo, facilitando el acceso a recursos alimenticios y refugio, que a su vez, favorece una mayor equidad de familias comunes (Landry et al., 2020); además, si consideramos nuevamente la hipótesis del disturbio medio, los sitios periurbanos con un nivel medio de perturbación, estarían alojando mayor diversidad, en este caso de fitófagos. Asimismo, se ha demostrado que zonas perturbadas que integran espacios verdes como parques urbanos, jardines residenciales, huertos verticales y familiares, parcelas de policultivos y parches de vegetación natural, favorecen la diversidad de fitófagos, al proporcionarles recursos alimenticios y refugios suficientes, que les permite adaptarse y prosperar en hábitats alterados por la actividad humana (Landry et al., 2020; Ruiz-Montoya et al., 2014). En los ensambles, la familia Pyralidae fue dominante en las zonas periurbana y natural, debido a su capacidad para aprovechar tanto plantas cultivadas como nativas, lo que le permite alimentarse y completar su ciclo de vida con eficacia (Cepeda, 2017). En cambio, las comunidades de la zona urbana estuvieron dominadas por la familia Cicadellidae, lo que refleja su adaptación a ambientes con altos niveles de perturbación (Trivellone et al., 2021).
La mayor diversidad de polinizadores en ciudad puede estar relacionada con la variabilidad y abundancia de recursos florales de los jardines, parques y áreas verdes presentes en los sitios, al proporcionar ciertas fuentes polínicas que favorecen dicha diversidad; estos resultados son contrarios a la que esperábamos si se considera la teoría sobre el espectro de polinización, que afirma, que a mayor cobertura vegetal en los ecosistemas, habrá un mayor número de plantas con flores, lo que permitirá alojar mayor diversidad de polinizadores. Sin embargo, es importante señalar que esta diversidad estuvo representada por familias de lepidópteros y no por abejas, debido probablemente a que estas últimas son de los grupos más sensibles a la contaminación de las ciudades (Roguz et al., 2023). Aunque se ha demostrado que en áreas urbanas, cuando se crean nuevos hábitats o refugios, como hoteles para polinizadores, jardines florales y corredores de flores silvestres, la diversidad de polinizadores tiende a incrementarse (Francini et al., 2022; Persson et al., 2023); pero el grupo de polinizadores varía dependiendo de ciertos factores asociados a la urbanización, por ejemplo, los abejorros son muy sensibles a la contaminación de las ciudades (Roguz et al., 2023); pero otros grupos pueden tener la capacidad de alimentarse en entornos urbanos (McLeod et al., 2021), como las mariposas (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea) que son más tolerantes a la urbanización que otros polinizadores como sírfidos, moscas abejorros (Diptera: Syrphidae, Bombyliidae) y abejas (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) (Ávalos-Hernández et al., 2024). Es importante señalar que la diversidad observada es de familias consideradas comunes, lo que está reflejando la adaptación de ciertos polinizadores generalistas, que se adaptan rápidamente a las condiciones altamente perturbadas y son capaces de aprovechar la oferta floral de estos sitios (Deguines et al., 2016; Neumann et al., 2024). Las familias dominantes encontradas en este trabajo se han registrado interactuando con varias especies de plantas en jardines urbanos, realizando la función de polinización (Wonderlin et al., 2019). Geometridae fue dominante en los huertos periurbanos con maíz, probablemente porque son lepidópteros que disminuyen en sitios más urbanizados (Gaona et al., 2021); Nymphalidae fue dominante en la vegetación natural y Erebidae en la ciudad; esto es relevante porque las áreas urbanas y agrícolas alteran los patrones de comportamiento de los lepidópteros nocturnos debido a la luz artificial, mientras que los lepidópteros diurnos en áreas naturales reflejan su dependencia de hábitats con bajo impacto humano (Seymoure, 2018).
La diversidad de parasitoides encontrada, también fue contraria a los patrones esperados, ya que, a mayor cobertura vegetal en los ecosistemas, habrá un mayor número de hospederos disponibles, lo que permitirá alojar mayor diversidad de parasitoides (Parsons y Frank, 2019). Esto puede explicarse por la denso-dependencia de los parasitoides a sus hospederos, incluso en ciudades (Rocha y Fellowes, 2018), probablemente, porque las trampas se colocaron en jardines de casas particulares, los cuales tenían diferentes especies vegetales, ornamentales, frutales y arbustivas que ofrecían microhábitats y recursos alimenticios a los hospederos y por consiguiente a sus parasitoides (Klaus et al., 2024; Lucatero et al., 2024; Start et al., 2020). Otra razón de los valores elevados de diversidad en la zona urbana, puede explicarse por la habilidad de dispersión de los bracónidos, ya que se ha comprobado que los artrópodos que ocupan altos niveles tróficos como depredadores y parasitoides, serán exitosos en sitios urbanos, si tienen alta capacidad de dispersión (Korányi et al., 2022). Tachinidae, que no ha sido registrada como una familia particularmente abundante para la región, fue dominante en los huertos periurbanos con maíz y la vegetación natural; además no es una familia de parasitoides hiperdiversa en comparación con los himenópteros parasitoides, por lo que es menos probable de encontrarse como dominante en los sitios (Kankonda et al., 2018). Por otra parte, se ha registrado que la abundancia de esta familia disminuye en áreas con altas densidades de edificios y calles que actúan como barreras que dificultan la dispersión de los individuos, así como la localización de sus hospederos (Corcos et al., 2019). Por el contrario, la familia Braconidae dominó los sitios de zonas urbanas, lo que podría sugerir su adaptación a ambientes altamente perturbados (Koptur et al., 2024), además de que se ha demostrado que la urbanización favorece especies generalistas capaces de explotar diferentes recursos, como podría ser el caso de Braconidae, parasitoides con mayor variedad en estrategias de desarrollo y biología.
Los depredadores fueron más diversos en áreas periurbanas con maíz y selva, al contrario de los parasitoides, que fueron más diversos en ciudad, probablemente porque al ocupar nichos similares, estén evitando la competencia. Cabe destacar que los depredadores, estuvieron representados mayoritariamente por diferentes familias del orden Coleoptera, que es uno de los grupos de insectos más afectados por la urbanización en términos de riqueza de especies, pero no de abundancia (Fenoglio et al., 2020). Aunque los coleópteros depredadores pueden aprovechar más eficientemente la oferta extendida del alimento que otros enemigos naturales, al adaptarse mejor a los cambios ambientales por urbanización (Gardiner et al., 2021; Liere y Cowal, 2024); como se observó en nuestros resultados, Coccinellidae fue dominante únicamente en la zona urbana, lo que confirma que son los depredadores mejor adaptados a la urbanización, por su capacidad para prosperar en las condiciones microclimáticas características de este ambiente (Kawakami et al., 2016; Meseguer et al., 2024). En cambio, Asilidae fue dominante en las zonas periurbana con maíz y natural, lo que puede reflejar su mayor supervivencia en zonas menos modificadas por la actividad humana (Pascacio-Villafán y Cohen, 2023).
Las diferencias de diversidad observadas para los diferentes ensambles de insectos, reflejan que las zonas urbanas pueden inducir cambios en las comunidades de insectos, e incluso, en algunos casos, favorecer esta diversidad. Pero, esto solo funcionará para cierto grupo de organismos que tengan estrategias tipo “r”, con hábitos generalistas y alta capacidad de dispersión y adaptación, que los hace exitosos en ambientes urbanos (Martinson y Raupp, 2013), como ciertas especies de avispas que pueden ser resistentes a la urbanización (Christie y Hochuli, 2009), como en nuestros resultados representadas por Braconidae; también familias que estén mejor adaptadas a ambientes con altos niveles de perturbación y que pueden colonizar nuevos hábitats creados por la actividad humana y volverse dominantes dentro de las comunidades al verse favorecidas por factores ambientales como la temperatura y la humedad (Adams et al., 2020; Sire et al., 2022). Sin embargo, los resultados contrastantes reportados en la literatura sobre los efectos de la urbanización sobre las comunidades de artrópodos (Arnold, 2022), sugieren que es prioritario continuar con esta línea de investigación.
En conclusión, la riqueza de insectos en sitios con distintos niveles de perturbación fue similar; sin embargo, se encontraron diferencias en la diversidad de familias comunes, esto resulta relevante debido a que los análisis se realizaron a un nivel taxonómico alto, de familia, donde normalmente es difícil detectar variaciones significativas en diversidad. Cabe destacar, que las diferencias fueron con las familias consideradas comunes, que probablemente sean las que presentan biologías generalistas que les permite adaptarse a condiciones adversas como las que existen en zonas perturbadas.
Contrario a lo esperado, la mayor diversidad de insectos no se encontró en la vegetación natural, sino que fue en los sitios periurbanos con cultivos de maíz, con niveles de perturbación moderados, con la familia Pyralidae dominando las comunidades. En la zona urbana, con el mayor grado de perturbación, los grupos de insectos más diversos fueron parasitoides y polinizadores con las familias Tachinidae y Erebidae, representando la dominancia de cada grupo funcional, respectivamente. Por el contrario, en la zona de menor perturbación, como fue la vegetación natural, únicamente los depredadores presentaron la mayor diversidad de insectos, con la familia Asilidae como dominante.
Agradecimientos
Los autores agradecen al Tecnológico Nacional de México por el financiamiento del proyecto “Huertos familiares y conservación de la diversidad de entomofauna benéfica” (clave: 20070.24-P) y al Consejo Nacional de Humanidades, Ciencia y Tecnología por la beca de posgrado otorgada al primer autor. También agradecemos a Xiomara Gálvez Aguilera, directora de la asociación Caribbean Conservation Coastal Ecosistem A.C., por permitirnos el acceso a la reserva privada “Komchen de los pájaros”.
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Cloud forests are known for their remarkable biodiversity and provide many ecosystem services. However, this biodiversity is in jeopardy due to the conversion of forests to other land uses. At its northernmost range in the Neotropics, cloud forest persists in remnant fragments immersed in an agricultural matrix that still has arboreal elements, such as riparian corridors. In this study we characterize the avifauna present in cloud forest riparian corridors in a highly degraded landscape of Mexico. We classified the avifauna in terms of migratory and conservation status, trophic guild, body mass, forest stratum and habitat preference. In 14 riparian corridors we recorded 86 bird species (75% were resident). Insectivorous and frugivorous species represented 79% of total richness. Almost 65% of species prefer the mid-story or canopy forest strata, while 46% were habitat generalists. Despite crossing open agricultural areas, cloud forest riparian corridors still harbor a diverse assemblage of bird species, which includes not only those tolerant to disturbance, but also species that are typical of old-growth cloud forest. We suggest that these remnants may be crucial for forest birds that move across the fragmented landscape.
Avifauna de corredores ribereños de bosque de niebla en un paisaje degradado del este de México
Resumen
Los bosques de niebla son conocidos por su notable biodiversidad y sus servicios ecosistémicos. Sin embargo, esta biodiversidad está en peligro debido a su conversión a otros usos de suelo. En su distribución más septentrional en el Neotrópico, el bosque de niebla persiste en remanentes inmersos en una matriz agrícola que aún conserva elementos arbóreos, como los corredores riparios. En este estudio caracterizamos la avifauna presente en dichos corredores en un paisaje altamente degradado de México. Clasificamos a la avifauna en términos de su estatus migratorio y de conservación, gremio trófico, masa corporal y preferencia de hábitat y estrato forestal. En 14 corredores riparios registramos 86 especies de aves. Las especies insectívoras y frugívoras representaron 79% de la riqueza total. Casi 65% de las especies prefieren los estratos forestales medios o de dosel, mientras que 46% fueron generalistas de hábitat. Aunque los corredores riparios atraviesan zonas agrícolas, siguen albergando un conjunto diverso de aves, que incluye no solo aquellas tolerantes a las perturbaciones, sino también especies características del bosque de niebla conservado. Sugerimos que estos remanentes pueden ser cruciales para las aves forestales que se desplazan por el paisaje fragmentado.
Palabras clave: Franjas riparias; Comunidad de aves; Paisaje fragmentado; Reservorios
Introduction
Tropical montane cloud forest (hereafter, cloud forest) is one of the most important terrestrial ecosystems worldwide. It provides environmental services such as carbon sequestration and water capture, and also mitigates flooding and drought (Bruijnzeel et al., 2011). Cloud forest is among the most biodiverse ecosystems in the world and hosts a remarkable diversity of flora and fauna in which spatial variation is prominent (i.e., high beta diversity), as well as a high proportion of endemic species (Aldrich et al., 2000; Karger et al., 2021). Mexican cloud forests are particularly rich in species of trees, shrubs and epiphytes, along with amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals (Gual-Díaz & Rendón-Correa, 2014). It is estimated that Mexican cloud forests are home to 551 bird species (i.e., 50% of the total richness of the avifauna in the country), and the cloud forests in the state of Veracruz are home to 346 bird species (Navarro-Sigüenza et al., 2014). The richness of cloud forest avifauna in other parts of the country ranges from 196 to 335 species per region (Hernández-Baños et al., 1995; Navarro-Sigüenza et al., 2014). Despite its relevance, Mexican cloud forest is currently in jeopardy, not only because of agricultural expansion and uncontrolled urban growth, but also due to the illegal extraction of its species and unsustainable use of its resources (Toledo-Aceves et al., 2011). In the central part of Veracruz in the 1990s, it was estimated that there were 426 km² of cloud forest, an area that was reduced to 279 km² by 2003 (Muñoz-Villers & López-Blanco, 2008). Even though the rate of Mexican cloud forest deforestation has slowed over the last decade, today it is estimated to cover only 175 km² in Veracruz (Bonilla-Moheno & Aide, 2020). Cloud forest remnants are currently found as numerous fragments of different sizes (1 to 30 ha, usually), which are immersed in an extensive agricultural matrix (Williams-Linera et al., 2002) that still contains distinct arboreal elements such as isolated trees, living fences and forested riparian corridors. The presence of these arboreal elements within the agricultural matrix, which also include small patches (< 5 ha) of secondary forest, could be relevant to the maintenance of different groups of native flora and fauna in anthropic landscapes (Toledo-Aceves et al., 2014).
Cloud forest riparian corridors are single rows of trees growing along each side of permanent streams or rivers that have been left uncut by farmers when converting the forest to crop fields or pastures. These narrow, elongated belts or strips of tall trees have a dense woody undergrowth (riparian corridors, hereafter) and extend along rivers for kilometers. They are usually the most conspicuous arboreal element in agricultural landscapes. Forested riparian corridors that cross agricultural plots provide several environmental services, such as riverbank stabilization, nutrient recycling and enrichment, and filtering and retention of agrochemical pollutants in surface runoff, among other services (Cole et al., 2020). Additionally, riparian corridors contribute to the conservation of several taxonomic groups in anthropic landscapes, including native woody plant species (Hernández-Dávila et al., 2020), amphibians (Rodríguez-Mendoza & Pineda, 2010), bats and non-flying mammals (Griscom et al., 2007; Zarazúa-Carbajal et al., 2017). For birds, forested riparian corridors have been shown to function as refuges, foraging and nesting sites, as well as habitat corridors or stepping stones for moving across fragmented landscapes (Domínguez-López & Ortega-Álvarez, 2014; Kontsiotis et al., 2019; Lees & Peres, 2008). In lowland tropical regions that have been converted to agriculture, relatively wide riparian corridors connected to large forest remnants have been found to harbor a higher richness and abundance of forest birds than narrower and unconnected riparian corridors (Arizmendi et al., 2008; Domínguez-López & Ortega-Álvarez, 2014; Pliscoff et al., 2020). The presence of linear arboreal elements within the agricultural matrix might help to maintain bird diversity in anthropic landscapes (de Zwaan et al., 2022). To date, the majority of studies on the avifauna that uses riparian corridors in anthropic or/and fragmented landscapes has been done in lowland areas originally covered by tropical rainforest or seasonally dry tropical forest (Graham et al., 2002; Latta et al., 2012; Villaseñor-Gómez, 2008). In particular, for riparian strips of tropical montane cloud forest, Hernández-Dávila et al. (2021) found that landscape composition (i.e., urban and forest area) and vegetation structure (mean height of vegetation) positively influence the richness and abundance of generalist and specialist birds using riparian strips. However, the bird community of cloud forest riparian habitats that could potentially be using these remnants in anthropic landscapes has not been characterized to date. In this sense, taking into account that the original area covered by cloud forest has been drastically reduced by human activities and that the remaining forest fragments are surrounded by an extensive agricultural matrix, in which still there are arboreal riparian strips, we wanted to determine and characterize the composition and structure of the bird community present in these remnants. The latter, in order to find out if these riparian strips can serve as biodiversity reservoirs or landscape connectors, that facilitate the movement of birds across the landscape and which bird species use them. The objectives of this paper were: 1) to determine the richness, diversity and composition of birds that use riparian corridors of cloud forest in a highly modified anthropic landscape, and 2) to characterize the avifauna that uses these corridors in terms of their conservation and migratory status, trophic guild, and habitat preference. To date, no characterization of the bird community present in riparian corridors of cloud forest has been carried out. Given that the cloud forest is fragmented and natural or semi-natural remnants, such as arboreal riparian corridors, can support different groups of flora and fauna, it is necessary to determine and analyze the avifauna present in these corridors. This knowledge is needed to design and implement management strategies of riparian corridors and improve the odds of native cloud forest species conservation in current landscapes.
Materials and methods
The study area is located in the central part of the state of Veracruz, Mexico in the upper basin of the La Antigua River within 19°31’59”-19°22’42” N, 97°05’36”-96°57’43” W (Fig. 1). The original vegetation was cloud forest (i.e., Tropical Montane Cloud Forest) with an average annual temperature of 18 °C and total annual precipitation from 1,500 to 2,000 mm/year. Fourteen riparian corridor sites (with elevations from 1,190 up to 1,780 m asl) were selected for bird sampling. The sites selected are near to the cities of Xalapa, Coatepec, and Xico and are part of a highly fragmented landscape and are representative of the riparian corridors in the region (i.e., narrow linear bands of remnant cloud forest 2 to 5 m wide growing on both sides of permanent rivers). Since riparian corridors can be several kilometers long, we delimited each of our 14 sampling sites as a riparian tract or segment approximately 400 m long (± 16 m, s.e.) with a continuous tree canopy (i.e., uninterrupted arboreal cover). The 14 riparian segments selected were all separated by more than 1 km. Most of the segments of riparian corridors that we selected for bird sampling cross open cattle pastures, with a few of them adjoining small patches (< 4 ha) of secondary old-growth forest or different types of crop fields (mostly maize or shaded coffee plantations). Dominant tree species in the sampling sites include Platanus mexicana, Liquidambar styraciflua, Palicourea padifolia, Styrax glabrescens, and Perrottetia longistylis. The canopy of these riparian corridors is formed by tall trees usually 15 to 20 m in height, with some surpassing 30 m, however, the average tree height in the sampling sites was 6.3 (± 7.0) m. See Hernández-Dávila et al. (2020) for more details on the vegetation structure and composition of the sites sampled.
The richness and number of birds visiting each sampling site were recorded at 2 fixed point counts set along each segment at least 250 m apart (Gregory et al., 2004). Field observations were conducted in October 2017, and in January, April and July 2018, for a total of 4 visits per point over the course of 1 year, with a 75-day interval between visits to each point. For each point count, all bird sightings were recorded with binoculars over the course of 15 minutes and within 35 m distance by one of us between sunrise and 10:30 am, except on rainy days. It took 3 days to complete the 28 points of a given period. The starting point during each period was alternated to cover the whole morning schedule of observation at each point. Only birds that were perching on the woody vegetation or on the ground or riverbank were recorded. Those flying overhead or perching in open areas nearby outside the riparian corridor were not counted. Thus, a total of 112 counts (14 sites × 2 points/site × 4 visits/site) were done at 28 points, totaling 28 h of observation. In addition to the visual records, we also set mist nets to capture birds to record understory birds visiting some of the sampled corridors, but owing to time and monetary constraints, we were only able to place the nets in 6 of the 14 riparian corridor sites. These 6 sites were chosen randomly and in each of them a total of 15 nets (10 × 2.5 m, each) were set parallel to the river flow on both riversides and at least 50 m apart along the sampled segment. From August 2016 to July 2017, one of the 6 riparian corridors was selected each month for mist-netting. Nets were left in place for 3 consecutive days avoiding rainy days and opened twice a day from sunrise to 11:00 and from 16:00 to sunset. This was done at each site twice over the sampled year. Sampling effort was 1,743 h and 2,250 m² of nets (25 m²/net × 15 nets × 6 sites) in 2 sampling periods at each site. Nets were inspected by 2 people every 30 minutes or less, depending on capture intensity. Each captured bird was marked by trimming a notch at the tip of one of the tail feathers to recognize recaptured individuals. Birds were released in situ immediately after sexing, weighing, and measuring (tarsus, tail, and total length; wing chord length; beak length, width, and depth).
Figure 1. A, Location of the 14 segments of cloud forest riparian corridors (black circles) selected for bird sampling in central Veracruz, Mexico. The main river or streams (lines) and cities (polygons) are shown in gray. Sampling sites: Agua Bendita (AB), Agüita Fría (AF), Acuario (AC), Trucha Feliz (TF), Mariano Escobedo (ME), Truchas Martin (TM), Granada (GR), Trianon (TR), Marina (MA), Rio Matlacobatl (RM), Puente de Dios (PD), Monte Grande (MG), Tlalchy (TL) and Vista Hermosa (VH); B, image (Google Earth – Pro V 7.3.6.9345) is a close-up of 4 of the riparian corridor segments sampled (VH, MG, TL, PD); C, close-up of the PD site, with the river indicated by a blue line. Map by O. Hernández-Dávila.
Bird species were identified using the Sibley (2000) and Howell and Webb (1995) field guides. Nomenclature follows the IOC World Bird List checklist (Gill et al., 2024). Recorded birds were classified as either migratory from North America or resident species, and we also noted whether they were endemic, following Navarro-Sigüenza et al. (2007). The conservation status of each species was based on Mexican federal law NOM-059 (Semarnat 2010), and The IUCN Red List (IUCN, 2024). For trophic guild, each species was classified as: carnivore, insectivore, frugivore, granivore, nectarivore and omnivore (González-Salazar et al., 2014). Additionally, species were categorized into 3 size categories (body mass): small (< 40 g), medium (40 – 100 g) and large birds (> 100 g). Forest stratum preferences were based on Martínez-Morales (2001) and classified as: canopy species (those associated with the upper forest stratum, > 10 m above the ground); midstory species (those that preferentially use forest stratum between 5 and 10 m above the ground); midstory and canopy species (those using both midstory and canopy strata); understory species (those that frequent the forest floor up to 5 m above the ground); understory and midstory species (those using both understory and midstory strata); and all strata species (those that use all forest strata). Finally, main habitat preference was also based on Martínez-Morales (2001) and noted as: forest interior species (those which prefer forest sites away from the forest edge); forest edge species (those that preferentially use the fragment edge less than 100 m away from open areas); forest generalist species (those that are common both at the edge and the interior of forest fragments); and vegetation matrix species (those associated with the agricultural matrix or open areas). For species not reported by Martínez-Morales (2001) we did not assign categories for forest stratum preference and habitat preference. For these cases, species were classified as unknown.
The total richness recorded in riparian corridors was determined by the sum of records obtained from point records and those from mist-nets. Each bird species was characterized in relation to its migratory and conservation status, size, trophic guild, and habitat and forest stratum preferences. Due to the differences in the number of riparian corridors sampled by each sampling method (i.e., 14 for count points and 6 for mist nets) and their differences in data obtained from each method, for all the remaining analyses, only data from count points were taken into account: species accumulation curve and sample coverage were estimated to assess the sample completeness. Hill numbers were calculated to analyze the diversity of bird species in terms of effective number of species (q0), effective number of abundant species or Shannon diversity (q1) and effective number of dominant species or Simpson diversity (q2) (Hsieh et al., 2016; Jost, 2006). The rank-abundance curve of overall recorded avifauna was drawn to show graphically the structure of the bird community (Kindt & Coe, 2005). Analyses of accumulation curves, Hill numbers and range-abundance curves were performed for all riparian strips combined and separately. Finally, similarity in species composition among the 14 sampling sites was estimated using the Jaccard index distance, which varies from 0 to 1. Zero indicates that no species are shared between compared sites, and 1 indicates that species composition is identical between the sites. All analyses were run in R software using the vegan (Oksanen et al., 2020) and BiodiversityR (Kindt, 2021) packages.
Results
We recorded a total of 86 bird species in the 14 riparian corridors. These 86 species belonged to 9 orders, 27 families and 67 genera (Table 1). The richest families were Parulidae (16 species); Tyrannidae (13 spp.); Trochilidae (9 spp.) and Turdidae (6 spp.). Of the 86 bird species, there were 67 recorded at the point-counts and 48 trapped in the nets, with 29 recorded with both field methods (Table 1).
Of the 86 recorded species, 65 were resident species and 21 were migratory. Only 2 of the recorded species are endemic to Mexico: Melanotis caerulescens (Blue Mockingbird) and Cardellina rubra (Red Warbler). Four species are under special protection status by Mexican federal law (Semarnat, 2010): Accipiter striatus (Sharp-shinned Hawk), Cinclus mexicanus (American Dipper), Psarocolius montezuma (Montezuma Oropendola) and Catharus mexicanus (Black-headed Nightingale-thrush), and 1 species is threatened: Catharus frantzii (Ruddy-capped Nightingale-thrush). One species, Selasphorus rufus (Rufous Hummingbird), is regarded as Near Threatened in the IUCN list. The richest trophic guilds were insectivorous (63% of species) and frugivorous birds (15%) (Fig. 2A). Regarding forest stratum preference, 18% of the species recorded prefer the midstory to canopy strata, and 17% are midstory specialists (Fig. 2B). For habitat preference, habitat generalists were the most strongly represented accounting for 30% of richness, followed by forest-interior species with 18% (Fig. 2C). Most recorded species (66%) were relatively small with a body mass < 40 g, and only 12% of species were heavier than 100 g (Fig. 2D).
During the 28 point counts we recorded a total of 816 detections of 67 bird species using the corridors. In the mist nets placed in 6 of the corridors, we captured 273 birds belonging to 48 species. The species accumulation curve for all corridors reached a sample completeness of 97%. According to Hill numbers the bird diversity was of 67 species observed (q0), 18 common species (q1) and 8 dominant species (q2) (Fig. 3). Individually, the sample completeness for each of the 14 riparian segments varied between 79% and 93% per segment; and regarding diversity, q0 ranged from 9 to 24 bird species per segment, while q1 ranged from 5 to 13 species and q2 from 2 to 13 species (Fig. 4).
Table 1
List of the 86 bird species recorded in 14 cloud forest riparian corridors in the anthropic landscape of central Veracruz, Mexico. Shown are the number of visual detections (# detections) of each species estimated by point counts and the number of birds captured in mist nets. Seed dispersing birds are indicated with an asterisk (*). Species are ordered by rank (only for data obtained by point counts). We also show for each species: migratory status, resident (R), North American migrant (M). Protection status: threatened (A), special protection (Pr), least concern (LC), near threatened (NT). Trophic guild: insectivore (In), frugivore (Fr), nectarivore (Ne), omnivore (Om), granivore (Gr), carnivore (Ca). Size (body mass in g): small < 40 g (1), medium-sized 40 – 100 g (2), large > 100 g (3). Habitat preference: forest interior (FI), forest edge (FE), forest generalist (FG), vegetation matrix (VM), and no information available (-). Forest stratum preference: understory (U), understory and midstory (UM), midstory (M), midstory and canopy (MC), canopy (C), and no information available (-). See below for bibliographic sources.
Species
# detections by point counts
# captures in mist nets
Migratory status
Protection status
Trophic guild
Size category
Habitat preference
Stratum preference
Chlorospingus flavopectus*
234
17
R
-/LC
In-Fr
1
FG
MC
Cardellina pusilla
102
15
M
-/LC
In
1
FG
A
Psilorhinus morio*
79
2
R
-/LC
Om
3
FG
MC
Myadestes occidentalis*
51
10
R
-/LC
Fr
2
FG
MC
Empidonax difficilis
36
18
R
-/LC
In
1
FG
M
Myiozetetes similis*
33
3
R
-/LC
In-Fr
1
VM
C
Parkesia motacilla*
20
14
M
-/LC
In-Fr
1
FI
U
Psarocolius montezuma*
20
–
R
Pr/LC
Fr
3
–
–
Setophaga townsendi
12
–
M
-/LC
In
1
FG
MC
Sayornis nigricans
11
2
R
-/LC
In
1
–
–
Tityra semifasciata*
9
–
R
-/LC
In-Fr
2
–
–
Turdus assimilis*
9
6
R
-/LC
Fr
2
FE
M
Turdus grayi*
9
6
R
-/LC
Fr
2
FE
M
Cinclus mexicanus
8
–
R
Pr/LC
Ca
2
–
–
Leiothlypis ruficapilla
8
1
M
-/LC
In
1
FI
MC
Mitrephanes phaeocercus
8
–
R
-/LC
In
1
FG
M
Quiscalus mexicanus*
8
1
R
-/LC
Om
3
–
A
Vireo solitarius*
8
3
M
-/LC
In-Fr
1
FG
M
Henicorhina leucophrys*
7
4
R
-/LC
In-Fr
1
FG
U
Melanerpes aurifrons*
6
–
R
-/LC
In-Fr
2
–
–
Thraupis abbas*
6
1
R
-/LC
Fr
2
FE
C
Contopus pertinax
5
1
R
-/LC
In
1
FG
C
Cyanolyca cucullata*
5
–
R
-/LC
Om
3
FI
MC
Euphonia hirundinacea*
5
9
R
-/LC
Fr
1
–
–
Lepidocolaptes affinis
5
3
R
-/LC
In
1
FG
M
Mniotilta varia
5
1
M
-/LC
In
1
FI
MC
Myioborus miniatus
5
1
R
-/LC
In
1
FI
M
Chloroceryle americana
4
–
R
-/LC
Ca
2
FE
MC
Empidonax hammondii
4
–
M
-/LC
In
1
–
–
Melanerpes formicivorus*
4
–
R
-/LC
In-Fr
2
FE
MC
Piranga leucoptera*
4
–
R
-/LC
In-Fr
1
–
–
Table 1. Continued
Species
# detections by point counts
# captures in mist nets
Migratory status
Protection status
Trophic guild
Size category
Habitat preference
Stratum preference
Catharus frantzii*
3
4
R
A/LC
Fr
1
FI
UM
Momotus coeruliceps*
3
2
R
-/LC
In-Fr
3
FG
M
Myiarchus tuberculifer*
3
1
R
-/LC
In-Fr
1
FG
M
Polioptila caerulea
3
–
M
-/LC
In
1
FG
MC
Ptiliogonys cinereus*
3
–
R
-/LC
In-Fr
1
FG
C
Rupornis magnirostris
3
1
R
-/LC
Ca
3
–
–
Vireo cassini*
3
–
M
-/LC
In-Fr
1
–
–
Amazona albifrons
2
–
R
-/LC
Gr
3
–
–
Basileuterus belli*
2
11
R
-/LC
In-Fr
1
FI
UM
Basileuterus rufifrons
2
–
R
-/LC
In
1
FG
UM
Chlorophonia elegantissima *
2
–
R
-/LC
Fr
1
FI
MC
Dendrocincla homochroa
2
1
R
-/LC
In
2
–
–
Leptotila verreauxi
2
–
R
-/LC
Gr
3
FG
U
Pyrocephalus rubinus
2
–
R
-/LC
In
1
–
–
Saltator atriceps
2
2
R
-/LC
Fr
2
–
–
Setophaga tigrina
2
–
M
-/LC
In
1
–
–
Setophaga virens
2
–
M
-/LC
In
1
FI
MC
Sporophila morelleti
2
1
R
-/LC
Gr
1
–
–
Campylorhynchus zonatus
1
–
R
-/LC
In
2
–
–
Cardellina rubra
1
–
R
-/LC
In
1
–
–
Catharus mexicanus*
1
12
R
Pr/LC
Fr
1
FG
U
Corthylio calendula
1
–
M
-/LC
In
1
FG
U
Dives dives*
1
2
R
-/LC
In-Fr
2
VM
A
Dumetella carolinensis*
1
2
M
-/LC
In-Fr
2
VM
M
Empidonax minimus
1
–
M
-/LC
In
1
–
–
Icterus bullockii*
1
–
R
-/LC
In-Fr
1
FE
M
Megarynchus pitangua*
1
–
R
-/LC
In-Fr
2
–
–
Ortalis vetula*
1
–
R
-/LC
Fr
3
FE
M
Pachyramphus aglaiae
1
–
R
-/LC
In
1
FI
MC
Piaya cayana*
1
–
R
-/LC
In-Fr
3
FG
M
Piranga flava*
1
–
R
-/LC
In-Fr
1
FE
MC
Piranga rubra*
1
–
M
-/LC
In-Fr
1
FI
MC
Seiurus aurocapilla
1
1
M
-/LC
In
1
FI
U
Setophaga nigrescens
1
–
M
-/LC
In
1
–
–
Setophaga ruticilla
1
–
M
-/LC
In
1
–
–
Tyrannus melancholicus
1
–
R
-/LC
In
1
VM
C
Accipiter striatus
–
1
R
Pr/LC
Ca
3
–
–
Archilochus colubris
–
1
M
-/LC
Ne
1
FI
UM
Table 1. Continued
Species
# detections by point counts
# captures in mist nets
Migratory status
Protection status
Trophic guild
Size category
Habitat preference
Stratum preference
Arremon brunneinucha*
–
14
R
-/LC
In-Fr
2
FG
M
Basileuterus culicivorus
–
2
R
-/LC
In
1
FG
UM
Campylopterus hemileucurus
–
20
R
-/LC
Ne
1
–
–
Cardellina canadensis
–
1
M
-/LC
In
1
FI
U
Catharus aurantiirostris*
–
2
R
-/LC
Fr
1
FG
U
Chlorestes candida
–
1
R
-/LC
Ne
1
–
–
Eugenes fulgens
–
2
R
-/LC
Ne
1
FE
M
Lampornis amethystinus
–
21
R
-/LC
Ne
1
FG
U
Melanotis caerulescens*
–
1
R
-/LC
In-Fr
2
FE
U
Myiodynastes luteiventris*
–
2
R
-/LC
In-Fr
2
FI
MC
Pampa curvipennis
–
12
R
-/LC
Ne
1
VM
UM
Pitangus sulphuratus*
–
1
R
-/LC
In-Fr
2
FG
A
Saucerottia beryllina
–
12
R
-/LC
Ne
1
–
–
Saucerottia cyanocephala
–
19
R
-/LC
Ne
1
FE
UM
Selasphorus rufus
–
1
M
-/NT
Ne
1
–
–
Stelgidopteryx serripennis
–
1
R
-/LC
In
1
FG
C
Vireo gilvus*
–
1
R
-/LC
In-Fr
1
FI
C
*Seed dispersing birds: based on field data from Hernández-Dávila et al. (2022) and Hernández-Ladrón De Guevara et al. (2012). Migratory status: from Howell and Webb (1995) and Sibley (2000). Size: from Martínez-Morales (2001), Sibley (2000), and birds captured in mist nets (this study). Habitat preference and stratum preference: from Martínez-Morales (2001).
The most common species recorded visually was Chlorospingus flavopectus (Common Chlorospingus) with 234 detections (Fig. 5A), followed by Cardellina pusilla (Wilson’s Warbler) with 102, Psilorhinus morio (Brown Jay) with 79 and Myadestes occidentalis (Brown-backed Solitaire) with 51 detections (see species detection data in Table 1). These 4 dominant species accounted for 45% of total detections recorded in the point counts. There were 10 species with only 2 detections (i.e., doubletons) and 18 species with only 1 (singletons), and these 28 extremely rare species accounted for less than 5% of total detections and 42% of the 67 species recorded in the point counts. In general, the pattern of dominance by the 4 species mentioned occurred in each riparian corridor sampled, concentrating most of the bird detections at each site, with several species having much fewer detections per site (Fig. 5B).
Bird species richness per site estimated in point counts varied from 9 (TM site) to 33 species (MA site), with 10 of the 14 segments sampled having fewer than 20 species each. Similarity between sites was low (Jaccard index, J < 0.4) for most of the paired comparisons (Table 2), with the highest level of similarity between the TL and AB sites (0.53) and the lowest between MA and AF (0.10).
Discussion
In general, and pooling all sampled riparian corridors, the sample completeness was high (97%), recording a total richness of 86 bird species in the 14 segments sampled in the fragmented cloud forest landscape of central Veracruz, Mexico. This richness is comparable to that reported in similar studies carried out in relatively large (> 3 ha) remnant fragments of cloud forest in the same region, where up to 75-100 bird species have been detected (Rueda-Hernández et al., 2015; Serna-Lagunes et al., 2023). These 14 riparian corridors harbor 24% of the bird richness reported for cloud forest throughout the entire state of Veracruz (Navarro-Sigüenza et al., 2014). The richness recorded in our study represents between 25 and 43% of the avifauna reported in other regions of Mexico with cloud forest, where 196 to 335 bird species have been found (Martínez-Morales, 2007; Navarro-Sigüenza et al., 2014). The richness detected suggests that riparian corridors are important elements in deforested landscapes of cloud forest for numerous birds. Other studies in different sites have shown that these elements of the landscape can serve as refuges, foraging areas and even as reproductive (nesting) sites (Hawes et al., 2008; de Zwaan et al., 2022), as well as making it possible for birds to move across large open areas in agricultural landscapes (Gillies & St. Clair, 2010; Pliscoff et al., 2020). Both resident species and migratory birds, visit and use forested riparian corridors during their autumn-winter stay in the tropics (Skagen et al., 1998; Villaseñor-Gómez, 2008). As shown in our results: 24% of the recorded species were North American migratory species. The migratory bird Cardellina pusilla, abundant in cloud forest as well as in shaded coffee plantations in Veracruz (Navarro-Sigüenza et al., 2014), was the second most common species in our study. By far, the most dominant species in our study was Chlorospingus flavopectus, a resident bird regarded as a forest generalist that is common to old-growth forest, forest edge habitats and patches of secondary forest (Cruz-Angón et al., 2008; Martínez-Morales, 2007; Renner et al., 2006). Myadestes occidentalis was the fourth most dominant species in riparian corridors, which is considered a typical cloud forest species (Caballero-Cruz et al., 2020). This pattern of dominance is similar to that recorded by Martínez-Morales (2001) who reported C. flavopectus, M. occidentalis, Henicorhina leucophrys, Catharus mexicanus, and Trogon mexicanus as the most dominant species in conserved fragments of cloud forest. Except for T. mexicanus, the mentioned species were recorded in this study. Another very common bird in our study was Psilorhinus morio, a habitat generalist associated with disturbed areas, and common in small forest fragments of cloud forest (Serna-Lagunes et al., 2023), in rainforest riparian corridors that cross pastures (Graham et al., 2002), as well as in open agricultural areas with scant arboreal cover (Cerezo et al., 2009). It is important to mention that P. morio is a large species (> 100 gr), only 12% of the species recorded belong to this size category, while 65% are small species (< 40 gr). The conversion of forest for agricultural purposes mainly affects the presence of large bird species due to the reduction in food availability as well as fewer nesting and roosting sites (Gomes et al., 2008; Martínez-Morales, 2001). Thus, large bird species are the most strongly affected by the reduction of forest cover, while small birds are more vagile and tolerant to deforestation, explaining the predominance of species smaller than 40 g in the riparian corridors studied.
Table 2
Similarity distance in bird species composition (Jaccard index) among the 14 riparian corridors sampled (upper-right side of Table) with point counts (see Materials and methods), showing the number of species shared between riparian corridors (lower-left side), and the total number of species in each corridor (diagonal black cells). Gray-shaded cells highlight the highest and lowest values of similarity distance. The names of riparian corridors sampled are abbreviated as in Figure 1.
AC
AB
AF
TR
GR
MA
ME
MG
PD
RM
TL
TF
TM
VH
AC
21
0.36
0.39
0.39
0.37
0.26
0.31
0.37
0.43
0.29
0.26
0.34
0.30
0.27
AB
9
13
0.33
0.35
0.43
0.24
0.30
0.38
0.39
0.32
0.53
0.35
0.38
0.32
AF
9
6
11
0.21
0.24
0.10
0.14
0.29
0.36
0.17
0.33
0.26
0.43
0.28
TR
11
8
5
18
0.52
0.24
0.29
0.21
0.32
0.27
0.19
0.29
0.23
0.25
GR
11
10
6
13
20
0.33
0.32
0.24
0.39
0.33
0.27
0.36
0.32
0.33
MA
11
9
4
10
13
33
0.31
0.17
0.27
0.43
0.21
0.28
0.17
0.25
ME
9
6
3
7
8
11
13
0.21
0.33
0.37
0.18
0.35
0.29
0.25
MG
10
8
6
6
7
7
5
16
0.35
0.25
0.32
0.42
0.32
0.27
PD
12
9
8
9
11
11
8
9
19
0.30
0.33
0.48
0.33
0.35
RM
10
9
5
9
11
17
10
8
8
24
0.32
0.40
0.22
0.24
TL
7
9
6
5
7
8
4
7
7
9
13
0.29
0.29
0.25
TF
10
8
6
8
10
11
8
10
12
12
7
18
0.35
0.43
TM
7
6
6
5
7
6
5
6
8
6
5
7
9
0.40
VH
7
6
5
6
8
9
5
6
10
7
5
9
6
12
Figure 2. Characterization of the avifauna recorded in 14 segments of cloud forest riparian corridors sampled in central Veracruz, Mexico. A, Trophic guild: insectivore (In), frugivore (Fr), nectarivore (Ne), carnivore (Ca), omnivore (Om), and granivore (Gr); B, forest stratum preference: canopy (C), midstory and canopy (MC), midstory (M), understory and midstory (UM), understory (U), and all strata (A); C, habitat preference: forest generalist (FG), forest interior (FI), forest edge (FE), and vegetation matrix (VM); D, size (body mass): small (1 – 40 g), medium (40 – 100 g) and large (100 – 500 g).
Insectivorous birds were the richest and most abundant trophic guild in the riparian corridors sampled and are also the most common guild in intact cloud forest (Martínez-Morales, 2007). Frugivorous birds were the second richest guild and were relatively abundant in our riparian corridors. These species, together with omnivorous species, are particularly important in forest regeneration due to their role as seed dispersers of forest plants. Some of the most important frugivores that are efficient dispersers of cloud forest trees, shrubs and other zoochorous plants include M. occidentalis, C. flavopectus, P. morio, and several species of the genera Turdus, Catharus, and Euphonia (Hernández-Dávila et al., 2022; Hernández-Ladrón De Guevara et al., 2012), all of which were recorded in our study. Seed dispersal by birds is crucial for cloud forest restoration since most plant species native to this forest depend on vertebrate frugivores for dispersal (Jordano et al., 2011). Forest frugivores usually avoid open areas that are devoid of perching sites, and this is one of the strongest limitations to forest restoration due to the limited or absent immigration of woody plant seeds into agricultural areas (Holl et al., 2000). However, it has been recorded that the density of linear forest or wooded patches such as riparian strips and live fences can increase bird diversity in agricultural landscapes (Wilson et al., 2017). In this sense cloud forest riparian corridors could contribute to species movement across the landscape. Thus, forested riparian corridors within the agricultural matrix facilitate that frugivorous birds will visit these disturbed sites and disperse seeds across and into the site. Another group of birds that is crucial for plant reproduction are the nectarivorous species, with several species of hummingbirds being particularly important. Of the 26 hummingbird species reported for Mexican cloud forest (Navarro-Sigüenza et al., 2014), 9 were recorded in the riparian corridors that we studied. The presence of birds that are seed or pollen vectors in riparian corridors contributes greatly to connectivity in anthropic landscapes and are essential to biodiversity conservation and forest regeneration and restoration in these landscapes.
Figure 3. Species accumulation curve and Hill numbers of the bird community recorded in 14 cloud forest riparian corridors. Shaded area delimits 95% confidence intervals.
As expected by the high degree of anthropic disturbance in the landscape we studied, the richest groups of birds in the cloud forest riparian corridors were forest generalist species and those associated with the vegetation of the agricultural matrix (sensu Martínez-Morales, 2001), which together represented 53% of the avifauna we recorded. The presence and wide distribution of different arboreal elements within the current anthropic landscape could explain the presence of forest interior bird species in riparian corridors. Changes in the structure and floristic composition of the original vegetation of a given site, resulting from human activities also lead to changes in the community attributes of the avifauna (Martínez-Morales, 2005). Among the most salient changes in the forested riparian corridors that cross agricultural areas is the high abundance of plants that are common in large canopy gaps or associated with disturbed sites, including several species of the families Piperaceae, Melastomataceae, and Rubiaceae, which were common in our study (Hernández-Dávila et al., 2020). These vegetation changes are more favorable to habitat generalists than to bird species associated with the interior of large forest fragments, explaining the lower proportion of species whose preferred habitat is the forest interior in our results. Studies in different regions report an increase in the richness and abundance of habitat generalist birds in forest edge habitats, where forest interior birds decrease (de Zwaan et al., 2022; Watson et al., 2004; Wilson et al., 2017).
For cloud forest, Martínez-Morales (2005) found that fragment size positively affects the richness and abundance of both generalist and forest-interior birds. In addition, for riparian corridors of cloud forest, Hernández-Davila et al. (2021) found that the richness and abundance of generalist and specialist birds showed a differential response to the amount of forest and urban cover in the vicinity of riparian strips. The percentage of urban cover near the riparian strip negatively affected the abundance of forest interior species and positively affected generalist species, whereas surprisingly the amount of forest area nearby the strip does not seem to influence the richness and abundance of birds using the riparian strip. These results could explain the differences between the number of generalist and interior species found in our study, as well as the differences of the Hill diversity values among the sampled corridors. Although this study did not analyze explicitly aspects of landscape configuration, it is relevant to mention that, although the riparian corridors are narrow remnants of just a few meters wide (< 10 m), both generalist and forest interior species were recorded in them. This suggests that these remnants may harbor a wealth of bird species regardless of their habitat preference. In fact, 2 of the bird species recorded are endemic to Mexico, another 4 are protected by law and 1 is threatened. This highlights the importance of riparian corridors as reservoirs of birds within anthropic landscapes, particularly species native to the cloud forest including resident and migratory birds. It is important to note that 3 of the species recorded in riparian corridors; Quiscalus mexicanus, Rupornis magnirostris, and Pyrocephalus rubinus could be regarded as urban birds (Maya-Elizarrarás, 2011; Ruelas & Aguilar, 2010).
As far as we know, this study is the first to describe and characterize the avifauna present in riparian corridors of the threatened cloud forest, however, it is important to take into account that, despite the fact that our point counts had a sufficient separation and elapsed time between observations to warrant independent detections and no overflying individuals or auditory recordings were included, we might have overestimated species abundances, in particular because birds move frequently along the forest strips (personal observation, OHD). Also, because mist nets capture understory species more frequently, species richness of mid- to high- strata birds are usually underestimated with nets. This study focused on riparian corridors and did not include other types of natural remnants or conserved forest fragments present in the region and part of the current mosaic of the anthropic fragmented landscape. Therefore, more studies are needed to determine the importance of riparian corridors for conserving bird diversity in comparison with other natural remnants of cloud forest.
Figure 4. Species accumulation curve and Hill numbers (q0, q1, and q2) of birds recorded in each riparian corridor. Sites are ordered according to richness; dark blue curves correspond to the riparian corridors with the highest richness (e.g., MA), while light blue curves correspond to the sites with the lowest richness (e.g., AB). Shaded area delimits 95% confidence intervals. Abbreviations of riparian corridors can be found in Figure 1. Figure 5. A, Rank-abundance curve for the avifauna recorded in 14 segments of cloud forest riparian corridors in central Veracruz, Mexico. The 4 most common species were: C. flavopectus, C. pusilla, P. morio, and M. occidentalis, the number of total detections is given in parenthesis; B, Rank-abundance curve in each riparian corridor. Sites are ordered according to number of detections; dark blue curves correspond to the riparian corridors with the highest number of detections (e.g., LM), while light blue curves correspond to the sites with the lowest number of detections (e.g., AB). Abbreviations of riparian corridors can be found in Figure 1.
In conclusion, our results show that the cloud forest riparian corridors that cross open agricultural areas harbor a diverse assemblage of bird species, which includes not only those tolerant of or associated with disturbance, but also species that are typical of intact patches of old-growth cloud forest. These would be absent in areas that are completely devoid of trees. Additionally, several of the birds recorded in our study are effective seed dispersers of cloud forest plants. For current deforested landscapes, this strongly suggests that cloud forest riparian corridors could be key elements in forest restoration efforts and for the conservation of bird biodiversity in agricultural landscapes. Landscape management plans designed to encourage the permanence and sustainable management of these forested corridors within the agricultural matrix will not only help in the conservation of the avifauna, but also in the restoration of degraded landscapes, thanks to the ecosystem services provided by birds, including the pollination and seed dispersal of plants native to the cloud forest.
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to María de los Ángeles García and Diana Vázquez for their valuable help in the field. The Instituto de Ecología, A.C. and Idea Wild provided the space and equipment that made this study possible. Bianca Delfosse translated the text from the original in Spanish and edited subsequent versions of the manuscript. We also thank two anonymous reviewers for their suggestions to improve the manuscript. This work was supported by The Rufford Foundation (grant number 20471-1 to OHD) and the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (grant numbers CONACYT-CB-2016-01 to VJS, and graduate scholarship CONACYT-285962 to OHD).
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Francisco J. García-De León a, Gorgonio Ruiz-Campos b, *, Jesús Roberto Oyervides-Figueroa c, Gonzalo De León-Girón b, Carlos Alberto Flores-López b, Dante Magdaleno-Moncayo d, Alicia Abadía-Cardoso e
a Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, S.C., Laboratorio de Genética para la Conservación, Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 195, Playa Palo de Santa Rita Sur, 23096 La Paz, Baja California Sur, Mexico
b Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Facultad de Ciencias, Carretera Ensenada-Tijuana Km. 103 s/n, 22860 Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico
c Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Departamento de Acuicultura, Carretera Tijuana -Ensenada 3918, Zona Playitas, 22860 Ensenada, B.C., Mexico
d Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Facultad de Ingeniería, Arquitectura y Diseño, Carretera Ensenada-Tijuana Km. 103 s/n, 22860 Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico
e Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Facultad de Ciencias Marinas, Carretera Ensenada-Tijuana Km. 103 s/n, 22860 Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico
*Corresponding author: gruiz@uabc.edu.mx (G. Ruiz-Campos)
Received: 20 August 2024; accepted: 20 February 2025
Abstract
We assembled and annotated the mitochondrial genome of golden eagles from the northwest of Baja California, Mexico, using reference and de novo strategies to analyze the synteny of mitochondrial genes, the phylogenetic relationships, and genetic variation of mitochondrial DNA. The length of the Golden Eagle mitogenome was 17,472 bp (base pairs) with a base composition of A (29.8%), C (32.5%), G (14.0%), and T (23.6%). The mitogenome contains 13 genes coding for the protein complexes coxI II-III, Cytb, cATP 6 and 8, and Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NADH 1-6); this arrangement is consistent with the general model of the mitogenome reported in other congeneric members. Mitogenomes of individuals from northwestern Baja California are unique and they differ from the mitogenome of southern California golden eagles in 3 traits: 1) molecule size is 140 bp larger than that previously reported, 2) the addition in the annotation of a region called pseudo control (ψRC), and 3) the annotation in 2 fractions of the coding region for the protein NADH dehydrogenase subunit 3 (ND3). The genetic diversity and phylogenetic analyses of the individual genes and mitogenome support a close genetic relatedness between the golden eagles from northwestern Baja California and southern California region.
Keywords: Mediterranean region; Mitochondrial lineages; Mitochondrial genome; Next generation sequencing; Non-model species
Mitogenoma de águila real (Aquila chrysaetos) en el noroeste de Baja California, México: relaciones filogenéticas y variación genética
Resumen
Ensamblamos y anotamos el genoma mitocondrial del águila real del noroeste de Baja California, México, utilizando estrategias de referencia y de novo para analizar la sintenia de genes mitocondriales, las relaciones filogenéticas y la variación genética del DNA mitocondrial. La longitud del mitogenoma fue 17,472 pb (pares de bases) con una composición de bases de A (29.8%), C (32.5%), G (14.0%) y T (23.6%). El mitogenoma contiene 13 genes codificantes de los complejos proteínicos coxI II-III, Cytb, cATP 6 y 8, y nicotinamida adenina dinucleótido (NADH 1-6); esto fue consistente con el modelo general del mitogenoma reportado en otros congéneres. Los mitogenomas de individuos del noroeste de Baja California son únicos y se diferencian del mitogenoma de individuos del sur de California en 3 rasgos: 1) el tamaño de molécula es 140 pb más grande que el reportado, 2) adición de la región llamada pseudocontrol (ψRC) y 3) anotación en 2 fracciones de la región codificante de la proteína NADH deshidrogenasa subunidad 3 (ND3). La diversidad genética y los análisis filogenéticos de los genes individuales y el mitogenoma respaldan una estrecha relación genética entre las águilas reales del noroeste de Baja California y la región del sur de California.
Palabras clave: Región mediterránea; Linajes mitocondriales; Genoma mitocondrial; Secuenciación de próxima generación; Especies no modelo
Introduction
The Golden Eagle, Aquila chrysaetos, is an accipitrid of boreal distribution that inhabits a variety of open and semi-open biotopes from sea level to 3,630 m in altitude in biomes as tundra, chaparral, temperate grassland, temperate deciduous forest, and coniferous forest (De León-Girón et al., 2016; Flesch et al., 2020; Kochert et al., 2002; Watson et al., 2011). This emblematic species is known to occur in Mexico in the arid and semiarid environments of the northern and central regions, including some locations as south as Oaxaca (Bolger et al., 2014; De León-Girón et al., 2016; Howell & Webb, 1995; Rodríguez-Estrella, 2002; Rodríguez-Estrella et al., 1991, 2020). Although the demography of the Golden Eagle has been determined with different genetic methods that confirm the structuring of its populations (Craig et al., 2016; Doyle et al., 2016), little is known about the genetic identity of populations of this eagle in its distribution range. Northwestern Baja California is considered the greatest nesting and conservation potential region for the Golden Eagle in Mexico (De León-Girón et al., 2016; Rodríguez-Estrella, 2002; Rodríguez-Estrella et al., 1991; Tracey et al., 2017), with vast areas of habitats still pristine for the population conservation of this species shared with the United States of America (Craig et al., 2016; De León-Girón et al., 2016, 2024; Doyle et al., 2014; Katzner et al., 2023).
Studies based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) allow determining the current state of conservation of species, as well as the identification of significant evolutionary and management units with their demographic aspects (Moritz, 1994). With the advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies (especially on complete mitochondrial genomes), new studies with non-model species became more common. As was the case for various species of the family Accipitridae, including the Golden Eagle. Doyle et al. (2014) were the first to describe the nuclear and mitochondrial genome of the Golden Eagle from the central California region, in the USA.
In this study we focus on the synteny of mitochondrial genes, the phylogenetic relationships, and the mitochondrial genetic diversity among Golden Eagle individuals in northwestern Baja California, Mexico. Given the high migration potential of this species, individuals collected in northwestern Baja California are predicted to be phylogenetically related to the westernmost Golden Eagle population in the USA. Therefore, studies focused on examining the genetic variation at the mitochondrial level will allow better decision-making for management and conservation programs for the species in a binational spectrum. In the same way, our study will be a valuable reference for analyzing other Golden Eagle populations in Mexico and other regions of its distribution range.
Figure 1. Geographical location of the Golden Eagle voucher specimens examined for mitogenome in the northwestern Baja California, Mexico. Geographic coordinates for each individual can be found in Supplementary material T1. Map by Rafael Hernández Guzmán.
Materials and methods
Tissue samples of 6 Golden Eagle specimens from northwestern Baja California, Mexico were obtained. These specimens were found dead in different agriculture valleys of the Mediterranean region in northwestern Baja California, Mexico, between the municipalities of Rosarito and San Quintín, from 1995 to 2014, and deposited as vouchers in the Bird Collection of the Science Faculty, at the Autonomous University of Baja California (UABC), campus Ensenada (Fig. 1, Supplementary material: T1).
For the DNA extraction, tissue samples of the pads of the feet of 5 Golden Eagle specimens referred to here as Ach 1 to Ach 5 were obtained. DNA using the nucleic acid purification method by differential saline precipitation (Aljanabi & Martinez, 1997) was extracted. Both feathers and blood for the Ach 6 sample (Supplementary material: T1) were used and extracted DNA with the Qiagen Blood & Tissue kit. The quality and quantity of the extracted DNA in both cases was evaluated using Nanodrop, Qubit and agarose gel electrophoresis.
Extracted DNA (from 77 to 210 ng/µL per sample quantified in Nanodrop for Ach1-Ach5 individuals and 0.581 ng/µL for Ach6 quantified in Qubit) was purified with SpeedBeads magnetic beads (Thermo-Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) at a 1.2:1 beads:DNA ratio and resuspended in 50 µl of TLE1X buffer. Libraries for shotgun sequencing were prepared, for which purified DNA from each individual was fragmented by sonication in a Bioruptor® (Diagenode, Liege, Belgium) using 2 rounds, each consisting of 5 cycles of 30 sec of sonication and 30 sec without sonication at the highest setting. DNA fragments were then prepared using the Kapa Biosystems® Hyper Prep Kit (KR0961–v4.15, Roche, Basel, Switzerland), with which end repair and A-tailing were performed, adapters were ligated, and PCR was performed with indexed primers (Glenn et al., 2020) for 14 cycles. Following amplification, fragment size selection was performed by double-dip with SpeedBeads magnetic beads (Thermo-Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) that allow to preserve fragments between ~250 and ~700 base pairs (bp) for each of the samples, which are the appropriate insert size for the Illumina platform. Sequencing was performed paired end on 2 different platforms. We sequenced the Ach1-Ach5 samples on the Illumina MiSeq V.3 at the Georgia Genomics and Bioinformatics Core (GGBC) to generate 300-bp paired-end fragments, and we sequenced Ach6 on an Illumina HiSeq 4000 at the Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation Clinical Genomics Center to generate 150-bp paired-end fragments.
Bioinformatic analysis. The quality of the raw sequences was evaluated using the FastQC program (Andrews, 2010). Subsequently, the sequences using a standard treatment were filtered using the Trimmomatic software (Bolger et al., 2014) with 4 steps. In the first step, the sequencing adapters and over-represented sequences were removed by means of the ILLUMINACLIP function. The second step discarded sequences with a quality value below 30 QS with the AVGQUAL function. The third step removed fragments below 25 QS with the SLIDINGWINDOW function. The fourth step did an even stricter cleanup using MAXINFO. This step conserved sequences of at least 100 base pairs and was configured to preferentially conserve longer sequences with a value of 0.3. For the Ach 5 specimen, an extended and modified version of the standard treatment was used due to the low quality of sequences. This involved applying the SLIDINGWINDOW function, which modifies the quality value.
Assembly and annotation. Two strategies were followed to assemble the mitochondrial genomes: the reference based and the de novo strategy (Machado et al., 2015, 2018). Mapping against a reference mtDNA genome was performed using the Bowtie2 program version 2.3.4.2 with clean reads (Langmead & Salzberg, 2012). The reference mitochondrial genome was from the same species A. chrysaetos, with the GenBank accession number of KF905228.1. De novo assembly only for samples Ach 2 to Ach 6 was performed using the A5-miseq pipeline (Coil et al., 2015). Due to the large number of reads after the filter (Supplementary material: T2) sample Ach 1 was analyzed with the Velvet software version 1.1 (Zerbino & Birney, 2008). The mitogenome was annotated from the scaffolds obtained from the de novo assemblies. We determined scaffolds longer than 4 Kpb by applying a search with the BLAST tool (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) of the NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information) website. The scaffolds were aligned to achieve greater coverage considering the length of the reference genome used previously. Afterwards, RNAweasel (http://megasun.bch.umontreal.ca/RNAweasel/) was implemented to the identification of tRNA’s (transfer RNA), rRNA’s (ribosomal RNA) and introns and, in turn, MFannot (http://megasun.bch.umontreal.ca/RNAweasel/) for the identification of proteins and open reading frames (Sieber et al., 2018).
In addition to the previous annotation, MITOS web server (Bernt et al., 2013) was used to assist in the annotation of de novo mitochondrial genomes, allowing gene names, tRNA and rRNA secondary structures, and codon usage to be obtained. Finally, a manual curation of the annotations was used to review the 6 existing reading frames with the UGENE software (Okonechnikov et al., 2012). The control region was identified based on 99% similarity with an A. chrysaetos partial control region sequence (EF459579.1). Genome Vx software (Conant and Wolfe, 2008) was used to map the Golden Eagle’s mitogenome, using individual Ach 6 to achieve this analysis.
In the annotation of the de novo assembly, the ND3 protein appeared divided into 2 fractions (see Results), a trait that was not reported by Doyle et al. (2014). Therefore, an experimental verification was required through PCR amplification and its subsequent Sanger sequencing. We designed primers from de novo assembly using the NCBI Primer-BLAST program: ND3Ach-1 (5’GCCTGATACTGGCACTTCGT3’ and 5’CCCTATCAATCTGACCCACCG3’) which generates a 716 bp fragment and ND3Ach-2 (5’CTTCTTCGTCGCTACAGGCT3’ and 5’CCTTCCACCGAACCCACTTAA3’) which generates a 774 bp fragment. Eight Golden Eagle samples from the Ornithological Collection of the Faculty of Sciences of the Autonomous University of Baja California were used for PCR amplification. These samples correspond to the 6 individuals used for sequencing and 2 extra samples that are not part of the mitogenome assembly study. The conditions of the PCR reaction were as follows: 6 min at 94°C, 35 cycles of denaturation, annealing, and extension at 94°C for 30 sec, 51°C for 30 sec and at 72°C for 1.5 min, respectively. A final elongation stage at 70°C for 7 min, and a final conservation stage at 15°C. We sent the amplified fragments for sequencing to the SeqXcel.inc Company in San Diego, California, and analyzed with the ABI PRISM® 3130xl Genetic Analyzer DNA kit.
Synteny and search for polymorphisms. A posteriori synteny analysis was performed between the Golden Eagle mitogenome reported by Doyle et al. (2014) and the newly assembled mitochondrial genome of this study. This analysis was carried out with the MAUVE software (Darling et al., 2004). The same reference mitogenome was used to call SNP’s and INDEL’s for the 6 genomes assembled in this work using the SAMtools program (Li, 2011). Filtering the call quality of the variants involved discarding those with a value less than 20 Qs and keeping those with at least 5X depth (Li, 2011). Each variant was manually evaluated, retaining SNPs and INDELs where at least half of the aligned reads showed the change and verified its existence in at least one other individual (Fridjonsson et al., 2011).
Phylogenetic relationships. Phylogenetic relationships were inferred using the individual gene dataset and the mitogenome. The individual gene fragments analyzed consisted of the ND2, ND3, coxI and Cytb recovered from Aquila chrysaetos individuals from GenBank (Supplementary material: T3) and those produced in this study. The mitogenome analysis for phylogenetic relationships consisted of 10 complete mitogenomes: 6 obtained in this study, 2 reference samples of Aquila chrysaetos (LR822062 from the United Kingdom and NC_024087.1 from California, USA), 1 reference sample classified as Aquila heliaca (NC_035806.1), but has been reported to actually consist of a A. chrsyasetos individual (Sangster & Lukesenburg, 2021) and 1 outgroup (Aquila nipalensis, GenBank accession number NC_045042.1). Both datasets were aligned using the MAFFT 7 algorithm (Katoh & Standley, 2013). Removing the non-conserved regions between the sequences of the multiple alignments was done using the online program Gblocks with the default parameters (Castresana, 2000). The nucleotide substitution model and the mutation rate were determined using JModelTest (Posada, 2008), considering the Bayesian information criterion (BIC).
Two phylogenetic reconstruction methods were used: Maximum Likelihood (ML) and Bayesian analysis. In IQ-TREE (Nguyen et al., 2015) the ML method (Felsenstein, 1981) was run with the DNA substitution model selected by ModelFinder (Kalyaanamoorthy et al., 2017) and 1,000 bootstrap pseudo replicates were performed (Hoang et al., 2017). Bayesian inference was used with MrBayes program (Ronquist et al., 2012); for this, 4 Markov Monte Carlo chains (MCMC) were implemented with a total of 10 million generations, and a sampling every 1,000 generations. To construct the consensus phylogenetic tree, a 25% of burn-in was applied. The support of the nodes was evaluated via the posterior probability values. The results of both approaches were visualized with FigTree 1.4 (Rambaut, 2009). For the mitogenome phylogenetic tree, the dataset on genes that were annotated across the entire mitogenome were partitioned (Supplementary material: T4). To determine the most appropriate DNA substitution model for each gene, the Akaike Information Criterion test implemented in jModelTest2 (Darriba et al., 2012; Guindon & Gascuel, 2003) was used (see selected models for each gene in Supplementary material: T4). The partitioned mitogenome dataset was used to estimate a Bayesian phylogenetic tree in MrBayes (Ronquist et al., 2012). The Bayesian analysis was carried out by running 4 MCMC chains for 5 million generations and saving the trees every 1,000 generations. The consensus phylogenetic tree was constructed using a 10% burn-in.
Genetic diversity. Individual DNA segments from the coxI, Cytb, ND2, and -ND3 genes were used to estimate the genetic diversity parameters for the A. chrysaetos species complex since these were the genes that had a relative amount of A. chrysaetos DNA sequences available in GenBank. Using DNA sequences from the Baja California individuals produced in this study and reference sequences from the species complex (Supplementary material: T3) the following indices were estimated with DnaSP 6 (Rozas et al., 2017): the number of segregating sites (S), number of haplotypes (Nh), haplotype diversity (Hd), and nucleotide diversity (π). Genetic diversity indices were calculated among all sequences included in the respective datasets and within specific groups of sequences according to phylogenetic clades or geographic origin of samples. In addition, the genetic distance (uncorrected p-distance) between and within the phylogenetic clades observed within the mitochondrial genetic lineages in PAUP software was estimated (Swofford, 1993). The clade OTU1 included sequences from a diverse geographical background, including all the DNA sequences of the Baja California golden eagles. In contrast, the A. chrysaetos DNA sequences grouped in the other closely related clade were classified as OTU2. Additionally, the DNA sequence of an individual of A. chrysaetos from California (Southern Sierra Nevada) was analyzed separately to compare its genetic distance with those from Baja California, given the geographical proximity between both populations.
Results
Raw sequencing reads ranged from 3,324,579 (individual Ach 1) to 539,825 (individual Ach 4). The number of total sequences after the filter ranged between 3,251,746 (Ach 1) and 526,875 (Ach4) (Supplementary material: T2A).
Assembly and annotation. There were large differences in assembly between individuals; for example, the average depth in the reference mapping for individual Ach 1 is 30.5X, while for Ach 6 is 168.3X, even though Ach 6 had fewer total reads than Ach 1. Assemblies for individuals Ach 1-5 showed fewer aligned sequences (Supplementary material: T2A). For de novo assembly, the average depth for individual Ach 6 is 8.0X. The longest scaffold generated (17,472 bp) allowed us to assemble the entire mitogenome of the Ach 6 individual, eliminating the need to align multiple scaffolds to recover the full length (Supplementary material: T2B). The data yield was inferior when doing de novo assembly for Ach 1-5 individuals, and none of these individuals allowed the recovery of the complete mitochondrial genome (Supplementary material: T3B).
Figure 2. Mitogenome annotated by de novo assembly for Golden Eagle (Ach6) from Baja California, Mexico. In the central part of the diagram in a ring form is shown a scale of the length of mitochondrial genome clockwise. Enlarged view of the section showing the division into 2 fractions of the mitochondrial gene for NADH dehydrogenase subunit 3 (ND3). The stop codon of the ND3a fraction is highlighted in red, the insertion of nucleotide A in yellow, and the start codon of the ND3b fraction in green. The ND3 gene is composed entirely of 352 bp; the ND3a fraction is 207 bp long, while the ND3b fraction is 144 bp long.
Based on the above results, we annotated and curated the mitochondrial genome using only the complete mitogenome obtained by de novo assembly of the Ach 6 individual. All 3 annotation tools identified tRNAs, and none of the tools identified introns within the sequence. The MITOS program (Fig. 2, Supplementary material: T4) was the only software that identified all the genetic elements, such as the 22 tRNAs, 2 rRNAs, and the 13 protein-coding genes that make up the mitogenome. This last annotation was the most complete, so the curation was made from it. We found a region with 7 nucleotide bases that is composed of an AGA stop codon of the ND3 protein, followed by an adenine (A) and finally an ATC start codon that codes for isoleucine. This region divides the ND3 fragment into the 2 regions proposed here (ND3a and ND3b, Fig. 2).
Synteny and search for polymorphisms. The linear order of the mitogenome of Ach 6 coincides with the reference genome (Accession number MT319112.1, Supplementary material: T5). We consider the SNPs and INDELs identified in the Ach 6 reliable, given that the average coverage is 168.3X, and their call quality was high (Supplementary material: T2A). Most SNPs and INDELs are found within genes that code for some protein, transfer RNA and ribosomal genes. The coxI gene presented the greatest number of SNPs with respect to the reference genome in the 6 individuals, while the Cytb and tRNA F genes presented the greatest length changes in the INDELs. In addition, in the ND3 gene, there is a consistent change in the sequences of the 6 individuals with respect to the reference genome (Table 1).
Figure 3. Bayesian phylogenetic tree based on the mitogenome for Golden Eagle voucher specimens from northwestern Baja California, Mexico. Posterior probabilities are shown above internal nodes. GenBank accession numbers are positioned next to reference sequences. Aquila nipalensis was used as an outgroup for rooting the tree. Two Operational Taxonomic Units are identified (OTU 1, 2).
Phylogenetic relationships. With the use of the mitogenome we constructed a phylogenetic tree that identified 2 clades with strong support (1): OTU1 that includes all the individuals analyzed in this study, plus 2 GenBank sequences (Aquila chryseatos, LR82062.1 from the United Kingdom and A. heliatica, NC_035806.1), and OTU2 that corresponds to a GenBank sequence of a specimen collected in California (Fig. 3). For their part, the phylogenetic trees obtained with the fragments of individual genes (ND2, ND3, Cytb and coxI) did not resolve the divergence between individuals from Baja California and California obtained with the mitogenome, but all except the ND3 gene showed a divergence (OTUs 1 and 2), mainly with respect to eagles from the European continent (when information on the collection location is reported, Supplementary material: F1).
Genetic diversity. We observed low genetic diversity, for instance, ND3, ND2, and coxI each had a single segregating site (Table 2), resulting in low nucleotide diversity values (0.0005, 0.0008, and 0.0002, respectively). In contrast, Cytb was the most polymorphic, with a total of 10 segregating sites and a nucleotide diversity an order of magnitude larger (0.00297) (Table 2). The genetic diversity found within OTU1 was higher than that found in OTU2 (Table 2), although OTU1 was not a geographically homogeneous clade among the trees of the different mitochondrial genes, for example in the case of ND2 it was made up of North American eagles, including the individuals of this study, but coxI apart from the previous ones was constituted with eagles from Sweden, Norway and Japan (Table 2).
Discussion
Despite using 2 sequencing platforms for the mitogenome of Golden Eagle from northwestern Baja California, Mexico, we successfully assembled the mitochondrial genome of all 6 individuals by the reference method. This included some individuals (Ach 1-5) with non-consensus regions. Bolger et al. (2014) recommend a pre-processing step of the readings before any analysis, be it assembly by reference or de novo, and mention that if the library and identification adapters are not removed, they can be incorporated in the final assembly. In our case, the pre-processing of the sequences positively influenced the performance of both assemblies and the SNP’s call since the quality of the sequence of the 6 individuals was considerably improved after pre-processing in all aspects of quality reporting.
Table 1
Location of SNP’s and INDEL’s in mitogenomes. Call of SNP’s and INDEL’s for each the Ach 1-6 specimens versus the reference genome of Golden Eagle from the southern Sierra Nevada in California, USA (GenBank accession: KF905228). Pos: Mitogenome position; Ref: nucleotide present in reference sequence. ψCR: Mitochondrial pseudogene control region.
Pos.
Ref.
Ach1
Ach2
Ach3
Ach4
Ach5
Ach6
Gen
SNP’s
1,505
G
A
A
A
D-loop
1,515
T
C
3,130
G
A
A
A
3,566
A
G
ND6
3,695
T
A
A
A
3,696
T
A
A
A
5,557
G
A
A
A
A
A
LSU rRNA
6,646
G
A
A
A
ND1
7,141
A
G
8,269
C
T
A
T
ND2
8,593
A
G
G
A
G
8,723
G
A
A
A
A
tRNA-Trp
10,925
C
T
T
T
T
T
10,963
T
C
10,970
C
T
T
T
T
T
10,975
T
C
coxII
11,003
A
G
G
11,011
C
T
11,205
A
G
11,213
C
T
11,237
C
T
11,282
G
A
11,284
G
T
11,285
A
C
11,351
T
C
11,354
A
G
11,378
C
T
T
11,432
C
T
T
T
T
T
11,489
A
C
C
C
C
C
C
11,493
T
T
tRNA-Lys
11,496
G
A
11,505
T
G
17,278
G
A
A
ND5
INDEL’s
Table 1. Continued
Pos.
Ref.
Ach1
Ach2
Ach3
Ach4
Ach5
Ach6
Gen
3
CTAA
CTAA CTTC CAAA CTAA
Cyt b
3,550
T
TGTG AACA A
ψCR
3,701
CAAA
CCCA CCAA TA
CCAA CAAT AT
tRNA-Phe
13,378
T
TC
TC
TC
TC
TC
TC
ND3
Table 2
Genetic diversity and haplotype composition from gene segments. Tax Set: Group of sequences included in taxonomic set; N: number of sequences; bp: base pairs of DNA sequence included in alignment; S: number of segregating sites; Nh: number of haplotypes; Hd: haplotype diversity; Nd: nucleotide diversity; North America: sequences from either Canada or USA. All sequences from ND3 formed a single clade, and thus were analyzed as a single group. OTUs 1 and 2 in each individual gene refer to the clades detected in each phylogenetic analysis, see Supplementary material F1.
Mitochondrial sequence
Tax Set
N
bp
S
Nh
Hd
Nd
ND3
All
11
352
1
2
0.182
0.00053
ND2
OTU1
8
1,039
0
1
0
0
OTU2
4
1,039
0
1
0
0
North America
2
1,039
0
1
0
0
Europe
3
1,039
0
1
0
0
All
12
1,039
1
2
0.485
0.00087
coxI
OTU1
13
1,551
1
2
0.154
0.00025
OTU2
2
1,551
0
1
0
0
North America
4
1,551
0
1
0
0
Europe
4
1,551
1
2
0.5
0.00082
All
15
1,551
1
2
0.133
0.00022
Cytb
OTU1
13
1,143
1
2
0.154
0.00016
OTU2
3
1,143
1
2
0.667
0.00069
North America
4
1,143
1
2
0.5
0.00052
Europe
5
1,143
9
3
0.02688
0.00541
All
16
1,143
10
4
0.442
0.00297
The most reliable mitogenome assembly was that of Ach 6 individual due to its higher alignment rate, its greater depth, and its 100% coverage of the reference genome. This ensemble can be considered true and not an artifact due to the procedures used, such as sampling every 500 generations and a burn-in value of 600,000 generations (Lerner & Mindell, 2005). In addition, we analyzed the data with Bowtie2, which implements an alignment strategy based on the FM-Index and Burrows-Wheeler. These programs have been shown to work well for applications such as INDEL discovery (Lindner & Friedel, 2012) and for aligning long sections of the reference genome (Thankaswamy-Kosalai et al., 2017). Hunt et al. (2014) pointed out that the best result of assembling a genome de novo is when it is contained in a single scaffold for the entire mitochondrial DNA molecule or for each chromosome in the case of the nuclear genome. The Golden Eagle mitochondrial genome assembly of individual Ach 6 was the best because it was found within a single scaffold (17,472 bp) and its depth was at least 8.0X (Supplementary material: T2B; Baker, 2012).
The extension and position of the genes in the mitogenome of the Golden Eagle described in this study (Fig. 2, Supplementary material: T4) showed differences compared to those reported by Doyle et al. (2014) from an individual sampled in central California. For example, the size of the mitogenome described here is larger (17,472 bp) than the one reported by Doyle et al. (2014) (17,332 bp), with a difference of 140 bp. When experimentally analyzing the size of the ND3 gene amplified fragments, the size was between 700 and 800 bp, that is, the theoretically expected size. Another difference consisted in the fraction of the gene encoding the ND3 protein reported here as split into 2 segments (ND3a and ND3b). The distinction of the 2 subunits is, within the reading frame, a region made up of 7 nucleotides between the ATC start codon that starts the protein, and the TAA stop codon that marks the end of the protein. The first 3 of these 7, code for a new AGA stop codon, followed by an adenine (A) nucleotide and 3 nucleotides that code for a new ATC start codon. This causes 2 coding portions to coexist, annotated as ND3, separated by a single nucleotide that changes the reading frame, causing the second portion to appear with its start and stop codons. Mindell et al. (1998) report a nucleotide that is not translated within the ND3 protein sequence. Eberhard and Wright (2016) mentioned that such a trait is observed in the entire order Psittaciformes (parrots, parakeets, and allies).
Specifically, a variety of distinct indels have been found within several of the mitochondrial protein-coding genes in Psittaciformes (Eberhard & Wright, 2016), with variations in terms of their evolutionary origin since some are present in all Psittaciformes and some are more recent in origin and only found within specific taxa. Slack et al. (2003) reported variation in the length of the mitochondrial ND6 gene in other avian taxa. Overall, the biological implications of these variations remain unclear until more studies on the proteins are performed to determine if the protein compositions become altered by these variations. However, the experimental verification carried out in the present study strengthens our annotation as 2 fractions for the ND3 region of the A. chrysaetos mitogenome. Also, we noted the regulatory non-coding region (the pseudo control region, ψCR) to be highly conserved among the A. chrysaetos individuals analyzed, which is a relatively conserved region within the order Accipitriformes (cf. Song et al., 2015) and is also found in the same position between the tRNA -E and tRNA-F, as shown by Liu et al. (2017) for the mitogenome of Accipitergularis, another congeneric species.
Synteny and search for polymorphisms. The assembled Golden Eagle mitogenome did not present changes in gene order with respect to the reference (KF905228.1, a male Golden Eagle from southern Sierra Nevada, California). As expected, neither did it present changes in the order of the genes with respect to other species of the same group of birds (Accipitridae), such as Buteo buteo (Haring et al., 2001), Accipiter virgatus (Song et al., 2015), Aquila fasciata (Jiang et al., 2015) and Accipiter gularis (Liu et al., 2017). In addition, it is consistent with one of the general models of the birds’ mitogenome that is characterized by a duplication of the control region and other adjacent genes, which were subsequently degraded, giving rise to the ψCR (Eberhard & Wright, 2016). SNP’s and INDEL’s observed in the mitogenome of the Ach 6 individual meet the needed quality (probability of not being an error) and sequence depth (Li, 2011), so they can be considered as potential markers that should be tested in future population studies, considering some technical aspects, and thus avoid the call of false positives (The 1000 Genomes Project Consortium, 2015).
Reconstruction of phylogenetic relationships. The phylogenetic tree classified all Golden Eagle individuals into 2 mitogenome clades (OTU1 and OTU2). All individuals from Baja California, an individual from the United Kingdom, and an A. heliaca individual clustered within OTU1 (Fig. 3), while OTU2 was composed of a single Golden Eagle individual from California. The genetic distance between the 2 OTUs was 0.002 nucleotide differences per site (Supplementary material: T6). This pattern is not surprising given the poor sampling of taxa for both the mitogenomes and individual genes of A. chrysaetos. Once additional mitogenomes are available for this species, it will become possible to increase the phylogenetic resolution that could confirm or reject the potential presence of multiple mitochondrial lineages circulating within Golden Eagle populations. Nevertheless, given the broad geographic area included in the mitogenome dataset (i.e., an A. chrysaetos individual from the United Kingdom, as well an A. heliaca individual), and the low genetic diversity observed within these mitochondrial sequences (see below), suggests that at the mitochondrial level, the genetic diversity found within A. chrysaetos populations is low.
The use of genes or fragments of the mitochondrial genome allows for the analysis to include a larger data set in the number of locations and individuals. The topology of 3 of the 4 individual gene trees (ND2, Cytb and coxI) did support the presence of at least 2 mitochondrial clades (Supplementary material: F1). However, these gene trees were not consistent when grouping the North American Golden Eagle individuals on the same OTUs.
Future studies targeting molecular markers with a higher mutational rate (i.e., microsatellites) or genomics approach could potentially uncover the presence of genetic differences that are not well defined at the mitochondrial level but might be biologically important. One such difference is seen in the species’ bivalent behavior and its migration pattern in the west (Mcintyre & Lewis, 2016) and northwest of the USA, and through Canada (Bedrosian et al., 2018). The mitogenomic lineages that potentially infer the difference between the eagles of Baja California and central California could correspond to the area where 2 ecological populations are coexisting (De León-Girón et al., 2016). The first population is migratory, originating in western North America (Oregon), while the second lineage is resident in Baja California. According to Craig et al. (2016), this lineage has 1 of the less frequent haplotypes of the mitochondrial control region and is restricted to California. The ability of the Golden Eagle to adapt to different environments (Judkins & Van Den Bussche, 2018), the large dispersal distances of reproductive or floating between Mexico and the USA (De León-Girón et al., 2016, 2024; Rodríguez-Estrella et al., 2020; Tracey et al., 2017), and its extensive home range of reproductive pairs (D’Addario et al., 2019), would support these hypotheses. Besides, the presence of these groups of individuals (reproductive and non-reproductive) in Baja California would be part of the reproductive behavior of the species (Watson et al., 2011), that is, the process of succession and substitution of reproductive pairs in the region (De León-Girón et al., 2016).
Genetic diversity. The values of mitochondrial genetic diversity calculated for most genes (except Cytb) were near zero (Table 2). We expected this result, considering that they are genes that code for proteins with highly conserved regions (Dawnay et al., 2007) and are subject to biochemical limitations that cause high levels of homoplasy (Faria et al., 2007). However, Bates et al. (2003) mentioned that ND2 is genetically more diverse than Cytb, while Faria et al. (2007) stated that ND2 is one of the most variable mitochondrial genes within birds and, therefore, regularly implemented in population genetics. A pattern we did not observe in A. chrysaetos since Cytb was the gene with the highest genetic diversity observed, with a haplotype diversity of 0.154 and 0.667 for OTU1 and OTU2, respectively, while both OTUs had a haplotype diversity of zero for the ND2 gene (Table 2).
Implications for conservation. Golden eagles are recognized for presenting large expanses of territory, and their resident, migratory and floating populations (reproductive adults without territories), promote the population gene flow (Craig et al., 2016; Poessel et al., 2022). The mitochondrial DNA data produced in this study confirm a very close genetic relationship between the northwestern Baja California individuals and those from the USA. Therefore, the execution of bi-national conservation programs by the agencies of both countries (SEMARNAT and USFWS) are priorities for the “Californian-Baja Californian” metapopulation of Golden Eagle. It is necessary to increase the number of young individuals with satellite tracking in the southern Baja California peninsula, to continue the genetic characterization (with different types of markers, mitochondrial DNA, microsatellites and SNPs obtained by Next Generation Sequencing) and population monitoring to evaluate the structure and connectivity of the species in both countries.
Our findings warrant developing joint conservation efforts between the governments of Mexico and the USA to monitor and preserve the North American Golden Eagle.
Acknowledgements
Funding for the sequencing was covered by the SAGARPA-INAPESCA PIDETEC project 2017/0647. The authors thank Travis Glen and Natalia Juliana Bayona Vásquez for their Illumina sequencing services. We thank 3 anonymous reviewers who helped improve the manuscript.
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C. Rocío Álamo-Herrera a, María Clara Arteaga a, *, Rafael Bello-Bedoy b
a Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Centro Interdisciplinario de Investigación para el Desarrollo Integral Regional, Unidad Durango, Sigma No. 119, Fracc. 20 de Noviembre II, 34234 Victoria de Durango, Durango, Mexico
b Universidad de Guadalajara, Centro Universitario de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Cátedras Conahcyt-Universidad de Guadalajara, Camino Ramón Padilla Sánchez No. 2100, 45200 Zapopan, Jalisco, Mexico
Received: 20 February 2024; accepted: 02 July 2024
Abstract
Endemic vascular plants are one of the main biodiversity indicators used to propose priority conservation areas. The richness of endemic species and corrected and weighted endemism are the most frequently used criteria, while anthropogenic or biocultural factors such as ethnobotanical value or ecological vulnerability are seldom considered. This work proposes priority conservation areas for Sinaloa, Mexico, considering the richness of its endemic species, corrected and weighted endemism, as well as ethnobotanical value, protection status, and the Priority Conservation Index (PCI). The analysis was performed in a 19 × 19 km grid and included 247 records of 78 species. The areas proposed when considering only the richness of endemic species and the weighted endemism coincided with previously known areas of high biodiversity in the state, which are areas of high collection effort and low anthropogenic impact. When considering the ethnobotanical value and protection status, the areas identified included those with greater anthropogenic impact, which contained species of biocultural and economic importance. When the PCI was used, both of these types of regions were identified. We therefore recommend this index as a better indicator to select priority areas.
Áreas prioritarias para la conservación con base en especies de plantas vasculares endémicas y sus atributos bioculturales: un estudio de caso en Sinaloa, México
Resumen
Las plantas vasculares endémicas son uno de los principales indicadores empleados para proponer áreas prioritarias de conservación. La riqueza de especies endémicas y el endemismo ponderado y corregido son frecuentemente incluidos en los análisis, mientras que aspectos antropogénicos o bioculturales como el valor etnobotánico o la vulnerabilidad ecológica son poco considerados. Este trabajo propone áreas prioritarias de conservación para Sinaloa, México, considerando su riqueza de especies endémicas, endemismo ponderado y corregido, así como el valor etnobotánico, estatus de protección e índice prioritario de conservación (IPC). El análisis se realizó en cuadrículas de 19 × 19 km e incluyó 274 registros de 78 especies. Las áreas resultantes, considerando únicamente la riqueza de especies y el endemismo ponderado, coinciden con áreas previamente conocidas por su alta biodiversidad en el estado, mismas que poseen altos esfuerzos de colectas y bajos impactos antropogénicos. Por el contrario, cuando se consideró el valor etnobotánico y el estatus de protección, las áreas prioritarias incluyen zonas con alto impacto antropogénico, pero con presencia de especies con importancia biocultural y valor económico. Empleando el IPC se identificaron ambos tipos de regiones; en consecuencia, recomendamos este índice como un mejor indicador para seleccionar áreas prioritarias.
Palabras clave: Índice de conservación; Ebenopsis caesalpinioides; Valor etnobotánico; Áreas naturales protegidas; Especies prioritarias; Stenocereus martinezii
Introduction
Plants are essential organisms for maintaining the equilibrium of ecosystems and life on Earth. They provide the vast majority of the ecosystem and subsistence services that humans need to survive, including food, medicine, shelter, oxygen, carbon capture, and soil retention. Caring for plants is therefore an act of self-preservation (Raven, 2018). However, over 50% of the terrestrial vegetation on Earth is severely or moderately altered (Bradshaw et al., 2021).
Mexico is the country with the third to fifth highest plant richness, with more than 23,000 species, half of which are endemic (Conabio, 2023a; Villaseñor & Meave, 2022). However, despite 12% of Mexican territory being decreed as Protected Natural Area, it is estimated that between 37 and 50% of the nation’s land area has been impacted by human activities and that the majority of well-conserved areas are located in desert, semi-desert, and high mountain areas that are difficult to access (González-Abraham et al., 2015; Mora, 2019). Two of the largest and most biodiverse ecosystems in the country —dry forest and temperate forest— have suffered total degradation of 37 and 26% of their cover, respectively (Conabio, 2023b; Ulloa-Ulloa et al., 2017). The main causes of this deforestation have been agriculture and infrastructure development, both in Mexico specifically and worldwide (González-Abraham et al., 2015; Laso-Bayas et al., 2022).
One of the main analytical approaches used to propose priority conservation areas is grid analysis, which identifies centers of high biodiversity (“hotspots”) using criteria such as species richness, richness of endemic species, weighted endemism (WE), presence of threatened species, diversity of specific taxa (families or genera), or phylogenetic richness (Gutiérrez-Rodríguez et al., 2022; Maassoumi & Ashouri, 2022; Mehta et al., 2023; Murillo-Pérez et al., 2022; Qin et al., 2022; Sosa & De-Nova, 2012; Vargas-Amado et al., 2020; Villaseñor et al., 2022). The richness of endemic species in particular has the advantage of using a more precise (though smaller) database than the other aforementioned criteria for grid analysis to indicate conservation priority areas.
On the other hand, other indices can be used to propose conservation priority species based on their ethnobotanical or biocultural value, or the degree of threat they face due to use (e.g., Value of Use, Frequency of Use, Conservation Index) (De Lucena et al., 2013; Dhar et al., 2000; Mehta et al., 2023; Pío-León et al., 2023). However, these indices are not usually included in grid richness analyses to select priority conservation areas. These indices weight each species’ value based on its conservation priority, such that a priority conservation area would be determined not just by the total number of species or endemism, but also by their qualities.
Pío-León et al. (2023) compiled a list of the vascular plant species of Sinaloa and proposed some priority conservation areas based on the presence of 2 or more endemic species. In addition, the authors proposed a Priority Conservation Index (PCI) for each species based on its ethnobotanical value and ecological vulnerability, considering characteristics such as its distribution, habitat, and anthropogenic threats. In this index, species with high ethnobotanical value, slow growth (arboreal habit), threatened habitat (near to agricultural zones), and small distribution area (1 or a few known localities), have higher priority than those with no known ethnobotanical value, rapid growth (herbs), inaccessible habitat (cliffs or steep slopes), and wide distribution. The PCI was calculated with the formula:
PCI= D + H + Fv + Am + VE + Vc
where D is distribution; H, habitat; Fv, life form or habit (Spanish abbreviation); Am, degree of threat to their populations; VE, ethnobotanical value, and Vc, commercial value. However, that work did not perform a grid richness analysis to incorporate the values of these indices with traditional algorithms such as WE.
In the present work, we propose priority conservation areas in Sinaloa considering 3 types of algorithms: 1) richness of endemic species, WE, and corrected weighted endemism (CWE); 2) ethnobotanical value, protection status (NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010 or IUCN) and PCI, and 3) the combination of 1) and 2). We hypothesized that incorporating those anthropogenic and biocultural attributes would modify the priority conservation areas selected since they will not necessarily correspond to the areas of the highest species richness.
Materials and methods
Sinaloa is located in northwestern Mexico, bordered on the east by the Sierra Madre Occidental (SMO) and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. According to Wiken et al. (2011), the main level III ecoregions that compose it are: 1) Sinaloa and Sonora Hills and Canyons with Xeric Shrub and Low Tropical Deciduous Forest (SS-TDF) (50%, 27,568 km2), which is located in the low parts of the SMO; 2) Sinaloa Coastal Plain with Low Tropical Thorn Forest and Wetland (S-TF) (29%, 15,612 km2), located in the lowlands near the coast, from the south-central portion northward; and 3) SMO with Conifer, Oak, and Mixed Forests (PQF) (15.78%, 8,681 km2) in the high parts of the western slope of the SMO (Fig. 1). It has been estimated that 4,000 species of vascular plants, nearly 80 of them endemic, occur in Sinaloa (Pío-León et al., 2023; Vega-Aviña et al., 2021). However, a large part of the coastal territory has been converted to agricultural land (~ 28,000 km2) (INEGI, 2023), resulting in severely fragmented habitats.
The database was based on the file generated by Pío-León et al. (2023) with some updates (Table 1). We incorporated recently described species (until October 2023) and removed species and collections that lacked reliable geographic coordinates. In addition, we prepared a matrix of weighted values considering the ethnobotanical value (E; 1 = documented use, 0 = no documented use), inclusion in a risk category (R) by the NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010 (Semarnat, 2019) or IUCN (2023) (1 = included in at least 1 category, 0 = not included), and the value of the Conservation Priority Index (PCI), using the values reported by Pío-León et al. (2023) (Table 1). For the PCI, we assigned values according to their quartile position: 4 (upper quartile), 3 (second quartile), 2 (third quartile), and 1 (lower quartile). From these data, we formed 3 analysis groups: 1) biocultural value (E+R; 0 to 2), 2) PCI value (1 to 4), and 3) PCI + R (1 to 5).
Figure 1. Sinaloa state, Mexico, its main ecoregions level III (Wiken et al., 2011), and the regions of endemism according to Pío-León et al. (2023). Ecoregions: PQF = Conifer, Oak, and Mixed Forests of the Sierra Madre Occidental; SD = Sonoran Desert; SS-TDF = Sinaloa and Sonora Hills and Canyons with Xeric Shrub and Low Tropical Deciduous Forest; S-TF = Sinaloa Coastal Plain with Low Tropical Thorn Forest and Wetlands. Regions of endemism: 1 = Maviri-Topolobampo, 2 = Surutato region, 3 = Cerro Tecomate, 4 = Cerro Colorado, 5 = Sierra Tacuichamona, 6 = Meseta de Cacaxtla, 7 = Sierra de Concordia.
Table 1
List of endemic species of Sinaloa considered for this study and their scores by attributes. E = Ethnobotanical value; R = species with conservation status by the NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010 or the IUCN (risk); PCI = Priority Conservation Index according to their quartile position.
Especies
E
R
PCI
E+R
PCI+R
Acourtia gentryi L. Cabrera
0
0
2
0
2
Acourtia sinaloana B.L. Turner
0
0
1
0
1
Ageratina concordiana B.L. Turner
0
0
2
0
2
Albizia ortegae Britton & Rose
0
0
3
0
3
Aloysia nahuire A.H. Gentry & Moldenke
1
0
4
1
5
Anemia brandegeei Davenp.
0
0
1
0
1
Arachnothryx sinaloae Borhidi
0
0
2
0
2
Bastardiastrum tarasoides Fryxell
0
0
2
0
2
Bastardiastrum wissaduloides (Baker f.) Bates
0
0
1
0
1
Bletia santosii H. Ávila, J.G. González & Art. Castro
Salvia beltraniorum J.G.González, Pío-León & Art.Castro
0
0
2
0
2
Salvia trichostephana Epling
0
0
2
0
2
Sedum copalense Kimnach
0
0
1
0
1
Stenocereus martinezii (J.G. Ortega) Bravo
1
1
4
2
5
Stevia concordiana B.L. Turner
0
0
2
0
2
Sysyrinchium jacquelineanum Art.Castro, H. Ávila & J.G. González
0
0
1
0
1
Tibouchina thulia Todzia
0
0
1
0
1
Tillandsia mazatlanensis Rauh
0
0
2
0
2
Tillandsia occulta H. Luther
0
0
2
0
2
Verbesina microcarpa S.F. Blake
0
0
2
0
2
Verbesina ortegae S.F. Blake
0
0
2
0
2
Verbesina sinaloensis B.L. Turner
0
0
2
0
2
Richness of endemism (SR), weighted endemism (WE), and corrected weighted endemism (CWE). The richness of endemic species was quantified in 19 × 19 km cells (361 km2), dividing Sinaloa into 195 cells. The cell size used was determined according to the criterion of Oyala (2020). Endemic species richness was quantified as the total number of endemic species whose distribution includes the cell. Endemism was evaluated using the WE and CWE indices. The WE score for each cell was obtained by summing, for each species present in the cell, the inverse of the number of cells in which the species occurs; thus, a high WE value indicates cells that contain more species with restricted distributions (i.e., that are found in few other cells), while low WE values indicate cells that mostly contain widely distributed species (i.e., species that are also present in other cells). The CWE is similar, but additionally corrects for potential biases due to differences in overall richness by dividing the value of the WE by the number of species present in the cell (Laffan & Crisp, 2003). The 3 parameters (SR, WE, and CWE) were estimated in the program Biodiverse v.2.0 (Laffan et al., 2010). Geoprocessing of the data was performed in QGIS 3.4.8 (QGIS.org, 2019).
Endemism weighted by biocultural attributes and PCI. In addition to SR, WE, and CWE analysis, endemism weighted by biocultural attributes was evaluated using 2 sets of attribute/parameter combinations, each resulting in 3 maps, 9 in total (Fig. 2). The first set included the species richness plus the biocultural values, resulting in the following 3 combinations: species richness plus biocultural value (SR+E+R), species richness plus PCI (SR+PCI), and PCI plus the risk category (SR+PCI+R). The second set did not consider species richness, resulting in the combinations of biocultural value (E+R), PCI, and PCI+R. For this second set of analyses, only species that fulfilled the relevant criteria were included (e.g., the E+R combination included only species that had ethnobotanical value and are included in a risk category). As such, in the first set of maps, a priority conservation area depended by the number of species present and their qualities (e.g., species with ethnobotanical value or species with protected status), while in the second only the species’ qualities were considered.
The final priority conservation areas were based on the consensus map of the 9 different endemism maps. The consensus areas took into account only the cells that had the highest possible value of the relevant variables in at least 1 of the 9 previously generated endemism maps. The consensus values were obtained by summing the number of times each cell had the highest possible value in each of the endemism maps, such that the highest possible consensus value was theoretically 9 (the cell had the highest possible value in all maps), and the minimum value was 1 (maximal value in only 1 map). The consensus map was also overlayed with Protected Natural Areas and Priority Terrestrial Regions, land use, and bioclimatic corridors.
Results
Occurrence, conservation (risk) status, and ethnobotanical uses of the endemic species of Sinaloa. The database contained 247 records of 78 species, 30 families, and 61 genera. For 48 of the genera (78.7%), only 1 species of the genus was present. The majority of the records were distributed in the central to the southern region of the state, near the coast, in the Meseta de Cacaxtla Natural Protected Area and the area between the former and Sierra de Tacuichamona, as well as in the Concordia and Surutato mountains of the SMO (Fig. 3; regions 6, 5, and 2, in Figure 1). The 2 level III ecoregions best represented were SS-TDF (166 records/ 40 species) and the PQF (53/ 37), followed by the S-TF (17/ 8) (Fig. 3a). Sixty-nine percent of the records fell outside of the polygons of Protected Natural Areas or Priority Terrestrial Conservation Regions (Fig. 3B). Sixty-eight percent of the species (53) were known from a single locality (either a single collection or collections from locations that are very close to each other).
Figure 2. Flowchart of the endemism analysis to select priority areas in Sinaloa, Mexico.
Only 4 species (Cnidoscolus sinaloensis, Ebenopsis caesalpinioides, Molinadendron sinaloense, and Stenocereus martinezii) of the 78 analyzed are found in some risk category (Table 1). All 4 are considered endangered (EN) by the IUCN, while only Stenocereus martinezii is included in NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010, under the category of special protection (Pr). Only 3 species have well-documented ethnobotanical uses: Aloysia nahuire (aromatic and medicinal tea), Ebenopsis caesalpinioides (edible seeds, occasional commercial value), and Stenocereus martinezii (edible fruits, commercial value). One additional species, Lupinus gentryianus, was noted in the type collection to be used as an anti-parasitic for livestock; however, this plant is only known from that locality, and this use has not since been confirmed, so it was not considered.
The different patterns of endemism are shown in Figure 4. The overall richness of endemism (Fig. 4A) showed 2 main areas —1 in the northern part of the Sierra de Concordia (region 7, Fig. 1) and the other in the western part of the Sierra de Tacuichamona (region 5, Fig. 1)— as well as 3 secondary areas located in the Sierra de Surutato (region 2, Fig. 1), Cerro Colorado (region 4, Fig. 1), and the southern part of the Sierra de Concordia. The WE (Fig. 4B) showed a similar pattern in richness but with an increase in the priority levels of the Sierra de Surutato and a decrease by 1 level for the Tacuichamona and Cerro Colorado. The CWE (Fig. 4C) showed several priority areas more scattered across the state than the WE, mainly in the SMO, corresponding to the majority of the species known from a single locality; however, compared with WE, there was a greater concentration of high-priority cells toward the northern part of the state, near southern Sonora, in the area around the Sierra de Barobampo and Hills of Topolobampo (region 1, Fig. 1).
Figure 3. Records of endemic species in Sinaloa overlayed onto: level III ecoregions (Wiken et al., 2011; definitions in Figure 1) (A) and Protected Natural Areas (PNA) and Priority Terrestrial Regions (B). Categories of Protected Natural Areas: PNAS = state; PNAM = municipal; PNAF = federal; PTR = Priority Terrestrial Regions.
Figure 4. Endemism areas of vascular plants in Sinaloa, Mexico, according to the calculated index values (A-I): SR = endemic species richness; WE = weighted endemism; CWE = corrected weighted endemism; E = ethnobotanical value; R = species with protection status; PCI = Priority Conservation Index.
Figure 5. Consensus priority conservation areas (PAC) in the state of Sinaloa (A-D). Consensus map (A) superimposed to: Protected Natural Areas/Priority Terrestrial Regions (B), land use (C), and bioclimatic corridors (D). Categories of Protected Natural Areas: PNAS = state; PNAM = municipal; PNAF = federal; PTR = Priority Terrestrial Regions.
The addition of the ethnobotanical attributes to the protection status and richness of endemic species (SR+E+R) (Fig. 4D) showed an increase in the values for the areas from the Meseta de Cacaxtla (region 6, Fig. 1) to Sierra de Tacuichamona, but a decrease in the zones of the SMO. Adding the Priority Conservation Index to the richness (SR+PCI) (Fig. 4E) showed an increase and homogenization of the priority in all of the aforementioned regions, while adding protection status (SR+PCI+R) (Fig. 3F) did not significantly modify the areas of importance.
Finally, when considering only the ethnobotanical value plus the protection status (E+R), without considering species richness (i.e., eliminating the species that did not have those attributes), the zone of highest priority was concentrated nearly exclusively in the southern part of the state, within and adjacent to the Meseta de Cacaxtla (Fig. 3G). When considering PCI only or PCI plus risk category, there was again a homogenization of the high priority for the 2 mountainous areas (Surutato and Concordia), Meseta de Cacaxtla, Tacuichamona, and surrounding areas (Fig. 4H, I).
The priority conservation areas, as defined by the consensus among the 9 maps analyzed, were composed of 7 polygons grouped into 3 categories (Fig. 5): 4 cells with a value of 6 (of the maximum possible score of 9) in the northern part of the Sierra de Concordia, northwestern part of Sierra Surutato, Meseta de Cacaxtla, and Sierra de Tacuichamona; 1 with a value of 4 in the area between the Meseta de Cacaxtla and Tacuichamona; and 2 with a value of 3 in the southern part of the Sierra de Concordia and southeastern part of the Sierra de Surutato (Fig. 5A). However, since the 3 areas with a value of 3 or 4 were contiguous with areas with a value of 6, 4 priority conservation areas were proposed: Sierra de Surutato (Fig. 45-a), Sierra de Tacuichamona (Fig. 5A-b), Meseta de Cacaxtla (Fig. 5A-c), and Sierra de Concordia (Fig. 5A-d).
Superimposing the consensus map with the map of existing Protected Natural Areas (Fig. 5B) showed that these 4 consensus areas fall partially within protected areas: 1 federal (Área de Protección de Flora y Fauna Meseta de Cacaxtla, Fig. 5B-c), 1 state (Sierra de Tacuichamona, Fig. 5B-b), and 2 municipal (Reserva Chara Pinta in the Sierra de Concordia and Reserva de Surutato, Fig. 5B-d, B-a, respectively). The Sierra de Concordia also includes part of the terrestrial priority region Río Presidio. Regarding land use, the 2 consensus areas in the SMO were found in mixed pine-oak forest with low impact of agricultural activity (Fig. 5C-a, C-d), while the other 2, located in the Sinaloa and Sonora Hills and Canyons with Xeric Shrub and Low Tropical Deciduous Forest ecoregion, present moderate to high impact from irrigated and rainfed agriculture (Fig. 5C-b, C-c). When considering biological corridors, only the priority area in the Meseta de Cacaxtla overlapped with a bioclimatic corridor.
Discussion
The analyses of richness of endemic species and WE showed higher conservation priority in areas that were previously identified as having high endemism (Pío-León et al., 2023), low anthropogenic impact from agriculture, and which have also historically been subject to concentrated collection efforts (Sierra de Surutato and Sierra de Concordia) (Ávila-González et al., 2019; Gentry 1946; Vega-Aviña et al., 2021). On the other hand, the regions defined based on CWE reflected a high number of species known from a single locality, which could indicate the presence of small islands of endemism in the state or low collection effort. In contrast, the inclusion of the ethnobotanical criteria and protection status (E+R) shows a different pattern from species richness, concentrating high priority scored in an area of transition between the coastal plain of Sinaloa and the hills of Sinaloa and Sonora, near the coast in the center-south of the state. These regions correspond to the transition and ecotone between low tropical deciduous forest and thorn forest, which are strongly impacted by anthropogenic activities (irrigated and rainfed agriculture), suggesting that the species with the highest ethnobotanical importance and with protected status (IUCN or NOM-053-SEMARNAT-2010) are found near human activities that require stronger conservation attention than those located in the high parts of the SMO, where the threats are less severe.
The priority conservation areas indicated by the consensus map (Fig. 5) include the regions with the highest richness of endemic species plus the areas with the highest number of species with biocultural importance. These consensus areas are practically the same as those that were assigned the highest priority values when considering only the Priority Conservation Index (PCI) for each species; as such, this index was the most robust single indicator for selecting priority conservation areas. This index combines ethnobotanical parameters such as species’ uses and economic value with ecological parameters such as their distribution, habit, and habitat. Thus, it covers a broad range of criteria that are useful for defining priority species or areas for conservation.
All the priority conservation areas defined by the consensus map (Fig. 5) except 1 included part of a Protected Area polygon, although only 1 was under federal jurisdiction (Meseta de Cacaxtla). The only cell that did not overlap with a Protected Natural Area was adjacent to the Meseta de Cacaxtla, and it was the cell with the largest area of agriculture. This area is important because it contains the 2 species with the highest ethnobotanical value (Ebenopsis caesalpinioides and Stenocereus martinezii), which are also found in a risk category according to the IUCN and NOM-053-SEMARNAT-2010. This area therefore urgently requires conservation and restoration activities, especially for E. caesalpinioides, whose distribution is limited to the area surrounding this cell (Pío-León et al., 2023). Specifically, we recommend avoiding the conversion from rainfed agriculture to technified irrigated agricultural activities, since these are generally more aggressive toward native vegetation. This area is also important because it is located at the transition between lowland deciduous forest and thorn forest of Sinaloa, which could reflect high endemism, in addition to potentially serving as part of the bioclimatic corridor connecting the 2 most important terrestrial ANPs in the state, Meseta de Cacaxtla (federal) and Sierra Tacuichamona (state).
In the present study, the incorporation of the species’ biocultural parameters modified the priority areas for conservation compared to the areas selected when considering only the richness of endemic species, weighted endemism, or corrected weighted endemism. Specifically, the richness analysis identified priority areas in the mountainous and high-diversity regions of Sinaloa, while the ethnobotanical and ecological factors incorporated zones near the coast that have higher anthropogenic impact. The Conservation Priority Index identified all of these priority regions; for this reason, we propose it as a complete and robust index for identifying priority conservation areas. At the state level, we recommend that conservation and restoration actions be implemented in the area of transition between the low tropical deciduous forest and thorn forest. This area simultaneously presents the highest impact of anthropogenic activities and harbors the most important Sinaloa endemic species in terms of biocultural value and protection status —the “pitaya de Sinaloa” (Stenocereus martinezii) and the “guampinola” or “frutilla” (Ebenopsis caesalpinioides). This area should be considered a priority for both conservation and restoration, which would not have been identified as a priority if only the richness of endemism or CWE had been analyzed.
Acknowledgements
The first author is grateful to the Consejo Nacional de Humanidades, Ciencia y Tecnología (Conahcyt) for the grant awarded as part of the Estancias Posdoctorales por México program (I1200/320/2022). We also thank Jorge David López Pérez for his suggestions on data analysis, and the two anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions that improved our manuscript.
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